empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive and flourish
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
Wilhelm Wundt
started the first experimental psychology lab; structuralism
Edward Titchener
William Wundt's student; founder of early field of psychology known as Structuralism
William James
Founder of early field of psychology known as functionalism; wrote first psychology textbook The Principles of Psychology
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, also known as a gut feeling or a hunch.
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it... (I knew it along phenomenon)
illusory correlation
expected or suspected relationship between variables where non actually exists.
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
A testable prediction that is often implied by a theory ("If___then_____")
operational definition
A clear and detailed statement about how exactly data collected from the variables will be measured; allows for accurate replication
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings are valid
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample; cannot be generalized to a population
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member of a target population has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other;- often shown by naturalistic observation or surveys.
correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
Variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure; correlation looks at the relationship between variables
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, (which represent variables) that shows the strength and direction of relationships between variables
regression towards the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
experiment
a research method in which variables are manipulated (independent variables) to observe the effect of the manipulation (the dependent variables); Only way to determine cause and effect
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, (to one version of the independent variable)
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between groups (equalizes groups)
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone;
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results; random assignment controls for confounding variables
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mean
the average of a distribution, obtained by adding all the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that is lopsided due to outliers (way-out scores)
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
Also called a normal distribution; a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% within 1 standard deviation) and fewer near the extremes.
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred randomly
Charles Darwin
developed the theory of evolution (basis of nature vs. nurture argument)
Mary Whiton Calkins
First female president of the APA
Margaret Floy Washburn
first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
Dorthea Dix
Early pioneer in therapy for psychological disorders
Paul Broca
Discovered area in left frontal lobe responsible for language production
Carl Wernicke
Discovered area in left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension
Roger Sperry
Pioneered split-brain research by cutting the corpus callosum to treat epileptic seizures
Michael Gazzaniga
pioneered split-brain research
Neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Cell body
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life support center (also called "soma")
Dendrites
A neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
Axon
Fiber that extends off of the cell body that carries an electrical signal (action potential) to communicate with other neurons or to muscles and glands
Myelin sheath
Fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed as the electrical signal travels down the axon
Glial cells (glia)
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; can be from the environment or from other neurons
Refractory period
In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
All-or-none response
A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing; increasing level of stimulation does not increase action potential intensity
Synapse
The junction between the axon tip (terminal) of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers triggered by the action potential that are released from the axon terminals of the sending neuron; they travel across the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron, influencing the receiving neuron to trigger an action potential; faster acting but shorter lasting than hormones
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron back into the axon terminals
Endorphins
"Morphine within"; natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Agonist
A molecule (drug or other chemical) that increases a neurotransmitter's action; may increase the production of a neurotransmitter or block reuptake
Antagonist
A molecule (drug or other chemical) that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action; may block the receptor site on the dendrite
Nervous system
The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (PNS → CNS)
Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands (CNS → PNS)
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Somatic nervous system
Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles (voluntary movement)
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Division of the PNS that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (involuntary functions); divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sympathetic nervous system
Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy ("fight or flight")
Parasympathetic nervous system
Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy ("rest and digest")
Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as a knee-jerk response; occurs in the spinal cord (no brain involvement)
Endocrine system
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
"Slow" chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue; slower acting but longer lasting than neurotransmitters
Adrenal glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland; controlled by the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands ("master gland")
Lesion
Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Amplified recording of the electrical activity in the outer-layers of the brain; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp; looks at brain FUNCTION