Chapter 9: Communism and Postcommunism
Communism, Equality, and the Nature of Human Relations
The Basics of Communism
Two definitions of communism
A political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state.
A political ideology that advocates such a system.
Traces back to German philosopher Karl Marx
More than ideology, communism also proposes a theory of history.
The Theory of Communism
Empirical
Attempts to explain how societies operate (how the world works)
Includes theories about why economies grow, why people start revolutions, and so on
Normative
An ideology about how society should function
Includes prescriptions about how workers should organize and overthrow market-based systems.
Key Marxist Terms
In Focus: Terms in Marxist Theory
Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class.
Communism - according to Marxists, the final stage of history once capitalism is overthrown and the dictatorship of the proletariat destroys its remaining vestiges. In communism, state and politics would disappear, and society and the economy would be based on equality and cooperation.
Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary. The existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis). This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis).
Dictatorship of the proletariat - temporary period after capitalism has been overthrown during which vestiges of the old base and superstructure are eradicated.
False consciousness - failure to understand the nature of one’s exploitation; essentially amounts to “buying into” the superstructure.
Proletariat - the working class
Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (for example, religion, culture, national identity). These ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation.
Surplus value of labor - the value invested in any human-made good that can be used by another individual. Exploitation results when one person or group extracts the surplus value from another.
Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.
The Basics of Communist Theory
Human history viewed as interaction between base and superstructure.
Base: the economic system of society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
Superstructure: all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current of exploitation.
People suffer from “false consciousness,” or a failure to understand their exploitation because the superstructure deludes them.
Revolution and the “Triumph” of Communism
Class Conflict and the Dialectic
Dialectical materialism: process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary
Marxist view of history
The existing base and superlative (thesis) comes into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis).
This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure and replacing it with a new one (synthesis).
The Classes in Conflict in the Modern Era
Bourgeoisie: the property-owning class
Own the “means of production”; exploits workers
Proletariat: the working class
The labor force adding value to production; exploited by bourgeoisie
Alienated from labor and from themselves
Ultimately will “gain consciousness” and overthrow system
Marx’s Phases of Human History
In Focus: Marx’s Phases of Human History
Feudalism
Capitalist democracy
Dictatorship of the proletariat
Communist utopia
At each stage, changes in technology increase tensions between the ruler and the ruled.
Ultimately, a major revolution occurs, and societies enter a new phase.
What Comes after the Communist Revolution?
Capitalism and liberal democracy are eliminated.
Transformation of base; rejection of false consciousness
Temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat”
May be directed by the “vanguard of the proletariat”
Ultimately, the state “withers away.”
Replaced with Communist utopia.
Putting Communism into Practice
Major Names in Communism
Communist theorist: Karl Marx
Communist practitioners: Lenin, Stalin, Mao, and Castro
Communist reformists: Deng Xiaoping and Mikhail Gorbachev
In Focus: Important Figures in Communism
Karl Marx
Lenin
Joseph Stalin
Mao Zedong
Deng Xiaoping
Fidel Castro
Mikhail Gorbachev
Moving from Theory to Practice
Marx: No blueprint for communist government
Expected anarchic utopia to emerge
Marxism takes off in agricultural countries
Two notable followers: Lenin (Russia) and Mao Zedong (China)
How to explain this deviation?
Lenin adds the “vanguard of the proletariat”: Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.
Different Communist Regimes Emerged
All were non-democracaies.
The “typical” communist regime: one-party rule
Communist Parties as the “vanguard” running the “dictatorship of the proletariat”
Examples: USSR, most of Eastern Europe, China
Other communist reinterpretations
Personal or monarchical rule (North Korea)
Military rule (Myanmar/Burma)
Key Features of Communist States
Elite-based, centralized authority under Communist Party
Often written into constitution; state institutions mirrored in the parties
Co-optation used to maintain control
Nomenklatura: politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
Monopoly of power and coercion
Banning of “hostile” organizations
Key Features of Communist Party Structure
Party structure often mirrors state structure.
The party hierarchy
General secretary: chief executive
Politburo (“Political Bureau”): top policy-making executive body of a communist party
Central Committee: legislative-like body of a communist party
Local cells: basic party organizations to which members are assigned
Communist Political Economy
Main Features of Communist Political Economies
Collectivization and nationalization
Private property eliminated
State-controlled industry and agricultural communes
Markets replaced with central planning
Central planning: a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold.
Extensive public goods and social services.
The Major Flaws of Communist Economics
Too many things for bureaucracy to plan
Regular supply shortages
Domino effect: shortages in steel → shortages in bolts → shortages in cars
Government (planners) and free markets prioritize different things.
Government planning focused on military and industry; few consumer goods produced
Lack of worker and business incentives
Factories and farms focused on hitting quotas rather than producing quality goods or profiting from surplus.
Workers did not fear losing jobs; businesses did not fear going bankrupt.
Consequences of Communist Political Economies
Massive supply shortages
Included food shortages, sometimes resulting in mass starvation.
Lower quality of life
Inequality low and extreme poverty eliminated, but benefits were unevenly distributed in society.
Fewer consumer goods that primarily went to nomenklatura.
Economic stagnation: innovation and efficiency completely disappear.
Products that were produced were inefficient and often low quality.
Industry fell behind the West.
Wrapping It Up: Communist Political Economy
In Focus: Communist Political Economy
Markets and property are wholly absorbed by the state.
Central planning replaces the market mechanism.
Individual property rights, individual profit, unemployment, competition between firms, and bankruptcy are all virtually eliminated.
Most of the nation’s means of production are nationalized.
The economy functions in essence as a single large firm whose sole employees are the public.
The state provides extensive public goods and social services, including universal systems of public education, healthcare, and retirement.
Inequality and poverty are reduced but not eliminated.
Societal Institutions under Communism
Societal Transformations: The Communist Goals
Religion: eliminate the “opiate of the masses”
Places of worship were closed, converted to other uses, or destroyed.
Gender and sexuality: eliminate exploitation
Promote equal opportunities for men and women.
Eliminate repressive institutions (such as marriage) in favor of “free love.”
Nationalism and ethnic identity: eliminate mechanisms that “divide and conquer.”
Societal Transformations: The Reality
Religion: goes underground
Gender and sexuality: mixed results
More job opportunities and political rights for women
Traditional sexuality and familial roles remain very conservative.
Nationalism and ethnic identity: strengthened
Nationalism actively promoted by the state.
Minority resentments fueled by unequal treatments.
Wrapping It Up: Societal Institutions under Communism
Institution | Ideal | Reality |
---|---|---|
Religion | Religion, “the opiate of the masses,” will disappear. | Religion was suppressed but not eliminated. |
Gender Roles | Men and women will be economically, socially, and politically equal. | Opportunities for women increased, but women were still expected to fulfill traditional duties in the home. |
Sexuality | Repressive institutions such as marriage will be replaced by “an openly legalized system of free love.” | Many communist countries remained very seuxally conservative. |
Nationalism | Nationalism, exposed as part of the elite’s “divide and conquer” strategy, will be eliminated. | Though discouraged from doing so, people clung to old national and ethnic identities. |
The Collapse of Communism
The Rise and Fall of Communism
Communism was a major political force for most of the twentieth century.
1989-1991 Communism falls in many countries.
By 1980s, Leaders Recognize Need to Reform
Economic problems
Stagnation; rising government debt
High inequality; rising food costs
Politics: stagnant (and often old) leadership
International crises
1979: USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan exposes military weakness.
U.S./USSR rivalry heats back up under President Reagan.
Social: civil society reemerges in Eastern Europe.
Reform Begins
1978: China begins “reform and opening” under Deng Xiaoping.
Economic (not political) reforms
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev takes power; seeks moderate reform.
Glasnost: free media and reduced censorship, making management and administration open to public debate.
Perestroika: introduction of some market reforms in agriculture and industry; preserves central planning
Struggled because of bureaucratic inflexibility
International reforms: loosens military control over Eastern Europe
USSR vs. China
USSR and Eastern Europe
Attempts at economic reforms fail
Communist party government overthrown
China
Economic reforms proceed (liberalization successfully pursued)
Communist party government maintained
Why Reform Failed in Eastern Europe and USSR
Modernization created well-educated, professional class.
Noscent civil society emerges
This civil society frustrated with centrally planned economy.
Triggers a crisis of legitimacy.
Chernobyl disaster worsens the legitimacy crisis.
Nationalism reasserts itself.
Eastern Europe seeks a “return to Europe.”
Pro-independence movements in USSR seeks national self-determination.
How Did China Avoid the Fall?
Economy: primarily agricultural
Weaker civil society
Economy was improving
Bolsters government legitimacy
International and identity motivators much weaker
Postcommunist Geography Changes
The USSR becomes 15 new countries.
East and West Germany reunite.
Czechoslovakia splits.
Yugoslavia fragments.
Czechoslovakia’s Split
Peaceful split
(Velvet divorce)
Yugoslavia’s Split
Several conflicts
Border disputes to this day
The Transformation of Political Institutions
Reorganizing the State and Building Democracy: The Challenges
Establishing a rule of law
Creating democratic “building blocks”
For example, political parties
Writing new constitutions
Separation of powers
Executive and legislative design
Electoral laws
Civil rights and civil liberties
Common Features of Democratic Transition “Successes”
More frequently located in Central Europe and Baltic.
More favorable precommunist legacy
Greater economic development
Vibrant civil society
History of democratic institutions
Experience with rule of law
Stronger ties to Europe and the European Union
Political Transitions: Successes and Failures
Top 10 Most Democratic
Czech Republic
Estonia
Lithuania
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Latvia
Poland
Romania
Top 10 Least Democratic
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Tajikistan
Russia
Belarus
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Armenia
The Transformations of Economic Institutions
Economic Transitions: The Challenges
In Focus: Reestablishing Separation of State and Economy
Privatization: the transfer of state-held property into private hands.
Marketization: the re-creation of the market forces of supply and demand.
Paths to Privatization and Marketization
Different paths to privatization
Option 1: small businesses sold to employees; large businesses to private investors
Option 2: distributed shared to firms to public as a whole
Different speeds toward marketization
Option 1: gradualism; slow easing of price restrictions while maintaining some social safety
Option 2: shock therapy; process of rapid marketization
Authoritarianism in Russia: Why?
1990s: “Shock therapy” for economy: Markets quickly established, and rapid privatization of state-run industries
Led to economic and political instability
State-run industries sold to ruling class cronies (oligarchs)
Sets the stage for the rise of Putin
The Unique Case of China
China is still controlled by the Communist Party but should be considered a “postcommunist” economic system.
Pursued economic reforms to privatize business and agriculture.
China’s reforms have fueled phenomenal growth and raised the legitimacy of the Communist Party government.
However, there are some problems with the China model:
Inflation, corruption, unemployment, and growing inequality
Weak rule of law compounds these problems.
The China “miracle” covers up serious environmental damage.
Upside of the Chinese model
Massive economic growth, millions lifted out of poverty
Downside of the Chinese model
Massive repression and surveillance
Economic Transitions
Different growth rate
Differences in (in)equality and poverty
Most have seen increases in inequality, poverty, and unemployment.
Economic frustrations fueling nostalgia on those left behind.
The Transformations of Societal Institutions
Challenging Identities: The Challenges
Reemerging identities
Religion
Ethnicity/nationalism
More complicated relations
Gender relations and women’s equality
Gender identity and sexual orientation
Comparing Social Transitions: Gender Equality
A legacy of gender equality (when compared to similar states)
Trend toward more divergence
Comparing Social Transitions: LGBTQ Rights
Differences in government policies
Improvements in Central European states
Outright discrimination increasing in Russia and Central Asia
Overall, homophobia in public is declining.
In Sum: The Legacy of Communism
Marx saw history as a class struggle, with revolutions triggered by changes in technology.
Communist systems sought to completely transform politics, economics, and society, but often fell short of their goals.
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, most communist states collapsed or transitioned to new forms of government.
Regarding political transitions, some communist countries transitioned to liberal democracy while others remain hybrid regimes or nondemocratic.
Regarding economic transitions, communist countries took many paths and had varying degrees of economic success.
Regarding social transitions, the postcommunist world varies significantly with regard to the expression to the expression of ethnic and national identity, gender rights, and LGBTQ rights.
Key Terms
Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production)
Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class
Central Committee - the legislature-like body of a communist party
Central planning - a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold
Communism - (1) a political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state; (2) a political ideology that advocates such a system
Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary; the existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis)--this would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis)
Glasnost - literally, openness; the policy of political liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s
Nomenklatura - politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
Party state - a political system in which power flows directly from the ruling political party (usually a communist party) to the state, bypassing government structures
Perestroika - literally, restructuring; the policy of political and economic liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the 1980s
Politburo - the top policy-making executive body of a communist party
Proletariat - the working class
Shock therapy - a process of rapid marketization
Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation
Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution, because as a result of false consciousness, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise
Chapter 9: Communism and Postcommunism
Communism, Equality, and the Nature of Human Relations
The Basics of Communism
Two definitions of communism
A political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state.
A political ideology that advocates such a system.
Traces back to German philosopher Karl Marx
More than ideology, communism also proposes a theory of history.
The Theory of Communism
Empirical
Attempts to explain how societies operate (how the world works)
Includes theories about why economies grow, why people start revolutions, and so on
Normative
An ideology about how society should function
Includes prescriptions about how workers should organize and overthrow market-based systems.
Key Marxist Terms
In Focus: Terms in Marxist Theory
Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class.
Communism - according to Marxists, the final stage of history once capitalism is overthrown and the dictatorship of the proletariat destroys its remaining vestiges. In communism, state and politics would disappear, and society and the economy would be based on equality and cooperation.
Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary. The existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis). This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis).
Dictatorship of the proletariat - temporary period after capitalism has been overthrown during which vestiges of the old base and superstructure are eradicated.
False consciousness - failure to understand the nature of one’s exploitation; essentially amounts to “buying into” the superstructure.
Proletariat - the working class
Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (for example, religion, culture, national identity). These ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation.
Surplus value of labor - the value invested in any human-made good that can be used by another individual. Exploitation results when one person or group extracts the surplus value from another.
Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.
The Basics of Communist Theory
Human history viewed as interaction between base and superstructure.
Base: the economic system of society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
Superstructure: all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current of exploitation.
People suffer from “false consciousness,” or a failure to understand their exploitation because the superstructure deludes them.
Revolution and the “Triumph” of Communism
Class Conflict and the Dialectic
Dialectical materialism: process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary
Marxist view of history
The existing base and superlative (thesis) comes into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis).
This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure and replacing it with a new one (synthesis).
The Classes in Conflict in the Modern Era
Bourgeoisie: the property-owning class
Own the “means of production”; exploits workers
Proletariat: the working class
The labor force adding value to production; exploited by bourgeoisie
Alienated from labor and from themselves
Ultimately will “gain consciousness” and overthrow system
Marx’s Phases of Human History
In Focus: Marx’s Phases of Human History
Feudalism
Capitalist democracy
Dictatorship of the proletariat
Communist utopia
At each stage, changes in technology increase tensions between the ruler and the ruled.
Ultimately, a major revolution occurs, and societies enter a new phase.
What Comes after the Communist Revolution?
Capitalism and liberal democracy are eliminated.
Transformation of base; rejection of false consciousness
Temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat”
May be directed by the “vanguard of the proletariat”
Ultimately, the state “withers away.”
Replaced with Communist utopia.
Putting Communism into Practice
Major Names in Communism
Communist theorist: Karl Marx
Communist practitioners: Lenin, Stalin, Mao, and Castro
Communist reformists: Deng Xiaoping and Mikhail Gorbachev
In Focus: Important Figures in Communism
Karl Marx
Lenin
Joseph Stalin
Mao Zedong
Deng Xiaoping
Fidel Castro
Mikhail Gorbachev
Moving from Theory to Practice
Marx: No blueprint for communist government
Expected anarchic utopia to emerge
Marxism takes off in agricultural countries
Two notable followers: Lenin (Russia) and Mao Zedong (China)
How to explain this deviation?
Lenin adds the “vanguard of the proletariat”: Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.
Different Communist Regimes Emerged
All were non-democracaies.
The “typical” communist regime: one-party rule
Communist Parties as the “vanguard” running the “dictatorship of the proletariat”
Examples: USSR, most of Eastern Europe, China
Other communist reinterpretations
Personal or monarchical rule (North Korea)
Military rule (Myanmar/Burma)
Key Features of Communist States
Elite-based, centralized authority under Communist Party
Often written into constitution; state institutions mirrored in the parties
Co-optation used to maintain control
Nomenklatura: politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
Monopoly of power and coercion
Banning of “hostile” organizations
Key Features of Communist Party Structure
Party structure often mirrors state structure.
The party hierarchy
General secretary: chief executive
Politburo (“Political Bureau”): top policy-making executive body of a communist party
Central Committee: legislative-like body of a communist party
Local cells: basic party organizations to which members are assigned
Communist Political Economy
Main Features of Communist Political Economies
Collectivization and nationalization
Private property eliminated
State-controlled industry and agricultural communes
Markets replaced with central planning
Central planning: a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold.
Extensive public goods and social services.
The Major Flaws of Communist Economics
Too many things for bureaucracy to plan
Regular supply shortages
Domino effect: shortages in steel → shortages in bolts → shortages in cars
Government (planners) and free markets prioritize different things.
Government planning focused on military and industry; few consumer goods produced
Lack of worker and business incentives
Factories and farms focused on hitting quotas rather than producing quality goods or profiting from surplus.
Workers did not fear losing jobs; businesses did not fear going bankrupt.
Consequences of Communist Political Economies
Massive supply shortages
Included food shortages, sometimes resulting in mass starvation.
Lower quality of life
Inequality low and extreme poverty eliminated, but benefits were unevenly distributed in society.
Fewer consumer goods that primarily went to nomenklatura.
Economic stagnation: innovation and efficiency completely disappear.
Products that were produced were inefficient and often low quality.
Industry fell behind the West.
Wrapping It Up: Communist Political Economy
In Focus: Communist Political Economy
Markets and property are wholly absorbed by the state.
Central planning replaces the market mechanism.
Individual property rights, individual profit, unemployment, competition between firms, and bankruptcy are all virtually eliminated.
Most of the nation’s means of production are nationalized.
The economy functions in essence as a single large firm whose sole employees are the public.
The state provides extensive public goods and social services, including universal systems of public education, healthcare, and retirement.
Inequality and poverty are reduced but not eliminated.
Societal Institutions under Communism
Societal Transformations: The Communist Goals
Religion: eliminate the “opiate of the masses”
Places of worship were closed, converted to other uses, or destroyed.
Gender and sexuality: eliminate exploitation
Promote equal opportunities for men and women.
Eliminate repressive institutions (such as marriage) in favor of “free love.”
Nationalism and ethnic identity: eliminate mechanisms that “divide and conquer.”
Societal Transformations: The Reality
Religion: goes underground
Gender and sexuality: mixed results
More job opportunities and political rights for women
Traditional sexuality and familial roles remain very conservative.
Nationalism and ethnic identity: strengthened
Nationalism actively promoted by the state.
Minority resentments fueled by unequal treatments.
Wrapping It Up: Societal Institutions under Communism
Institution | Ideal | Reality |
---|---|---|
Religion | Religion, “the opiate of the masses,” will disappear. | Religion was suppressed but not eliminated. |
Gender Roles | Men and women will be economically, socially, and politically equal. | Opportunities for women increased, but women were still expected to fulfill traditional duties in the home. |
Sexuality | Repressive institutions such as marriage will be replaced by “an openly legalized system of free love.” | Many communist countries remained very seuxally conservative. |
Nationalism | Nationalism, exposed as part of the elite’s “divide and conquer” strategy, will be eliminated. | Though discouraged from doing so, people clung to old national and ethnic identities. |
The Collapse of Communism
The Rise and Fall of Communism
Communism was a major political force for most of the twentieth century.
1989-1991 Communism falls in many countries.
By 1980s, Leaders Recognize Need to Reform
Economic problems
Stagnation; rising government debt
High inequality; rising food costs
Politics: stagnant (and often old) leadership
International crises
1979: USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan exposes military weakness.
U.S./USSR rivalry heats back up under President Reagan.
Social: civil society reemerges in Eastern Europe.
Reform Begins
1978: China begins “reform and opening” under Deng Xiaoping.
Economic (not political) reforms
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev takes power; seeks moderate reform.
Glasnost: free media and reduced censorship, making management and administration open to public debate.
Perestroika: introduction of some market reforms in agriculture and industry; preserves central planning
Struggled because of bureaucratic inflexibility
International reforms: loosens military control over Eastern Europe
USSR vs. China
USSR and Eastern Europe
Attempts at economic reforms fail
Communist party government overthrown
China
Economic reforms proceed (liberalization successfully pursued)
Communist party government maintained
Why Reform Failed in Eastern Europe and USSR
Modernization created well-educated, professional class.
Noscent civil society emerges
This civil society frustrated with centrally planned economy.
Triggers a crisis of legitimacy.
Chernobyl disaster worsens the legitimacy crisis.
Nationalism reasserts itself.
Eastern Europe seeks a “return to Europe.”
Pro-independence movements in USSR seeks national self-determination.
How Did China Avoid the Fall?
Economy: primarily agricultural
Weaker civil society
Economy was improving
Bolsters government legitimacy
International and identity motivators much weaker
Postcommunist Geography Changes
The USSR becomes 15 new countries.
East and West Germany reunite.
Czechoslovakia splits.
Yugoslavia fragments.
Czechoslovakia’s Split
Peaceful split
(Velvet divorce)
Yugoslavia’s Split
Several conflicts
Border disputes to this day
The Transformation of Political Institutions
Reorganizing the State and Building Democracy: The Challenges
Establishing a rule of law
Creating democratic “building blocks”
For example, political parties
Writing new constitutions
Separation of powers
Executive and legislative design
Electoral laws
Civil rights and civil liberties
Common Features of Democratic Transition “Successes”
More frequently located in Central Europe and Baltic.
More favorable precommunist legacy
Greater economic development
Vibrant civil society
History of democratic institutions
Experience with rule of law
Stronger ties to Europe and the European Union
Political Transitions: Successes and Failures
Top 10 Most Democratic
Czech Republic
Estonia
Lithuania
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Latvia
Poland
Romania
Top 10 Least Democratic
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Tajikistan
Russia
Belarus
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Armenia
The Transformations of Economic Institutions
Economic Transitions: The Challenges
In Focus: Reestablishing Separation of State and Economy
Privatization: the transfer of state-held property into private hands.
Marketization: the re-creation of the market forces of supply and demand.
Paths to Privatization and Marketization
Different paths to privatization
Option 1: small businesses sold to employees; large businesses to private investors
Option 2: distributed shared to firms to public as a whole
Different speeds toward marketization
Option 1: gradualism; slow easing of price restrictions while maintaining some social safety
Option 2: shock therapy; process of rapid marketization
Authoritarianism in Russia: Why?
1990s: “Shock therapy” for economy: Markets quickly established, and rapid privatization of state-run industries
Led to economic and political instability
State-run industries sold to ruling class cronies (oligarchs)
Sets the stage for the rise of Putin
The Unique Case of China
China is still controlled by the Communist Party but should be considered a “postcommunist” economic system.
Pursued economic reforms to privatize business and agriculture.
China’s reforms have fueled phenomenal growth and raised the legitimacy of the Communist Party government.
However, there are some problems with the China model:
Inflation, corruption, unemployment, and growing inequality
Weak rule of law compounds these problems.
The China “miracle” covers up serious environmental damage.
Upside of the Chinese model
Massive economic growth, millions lifted out of poverty
Downside of the Chinese model
Massive repression and surveillance
Economic Transitions
Different growth rate
Differences in (in)equality and poverty
Most have seen increases in inequality, poverty, and unemployment.
Economic frustrations fueling nostalgia on those left behind.
The Transformations of Societal Institutions
Challenging Identities: The Challenges
Reemerging identities
Religion
Ethnicity/nationalism
More complicated relations
Gender relations and women’s equality
Gender identity and sexual orientation
Comparing Social Transitions: Gender Equality
A legacy of gender equality (when compared to similar states)
Trend toward more divergence
Comparing Social Transitions: LGBTQ Rights
Differences in government policies
Improvements in Central European states
Outright discrimination increasing in Russia and Central Asia
Overall, homophobia in public is declining.
In Sum: The Legacy of Communism
Marx saw history as a class struggle, with revolutions triggered by changes in technology.
Communist systems sought to completely transform politics, economics, and society, but often fell short of their goals.
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, most communist states collapsed or transitioned to new forms of government.
Regarding political transitions, some communist countries transitioned to liberal democracy while others remain hybrid regimes or nondemocratic.
Regarding economic transitions, communist countries took many paths and had varying degrees of economic success.
Regarding social transitions, the postcommunist world varies significantly with regard to the expression to the expression of ethnic and national identity, gender rights, and LGBTQ rights.
Key Terms
Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production)
Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class
Central Committee - the legislature-like body of a communist party
Central planning - a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold
Communism - (1) a political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state; (2) a political ideology that advocates such a system
Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary; the existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis)--this would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis)
Glasnost - literally, openness; the policy of political liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s
Nomenklatura - politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
Party state - a political system in which power flows directly from the ruling political party (usually a communist party) to the state, bypassing government structures
Perestroika - literally, restructuring; the policy of political and economic liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the 1980s
Politburo - the top policy-making executive body of a communist party
Proletariat - the working class
Shock therapy - a process of rapid marketization
Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation
Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution, because as a result of false consciousness, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise