Millions of Immigrants Arrive In the mid-1800s, large numbers of immigrants crossed the Atlantic Ocean to begin new lives in the United States. More than 4 million of them settled in the United States between 1840 and 1860, most from Europe. More than 3 million of these immigrants arrived from Ireland and Germany. Many of them were fleeing economic or political troubles in their native countries. Fleeing the Irish Potato Famine Most immigrants from the British Isles during that period were Irish. In the mid-1840s, potato blight, a disease that causes rot in potatoes, left many families in Ireland with little food. More than a million Irish people died of starvation and disease. Even more, fled to the United States. Most Irish immigrants were very poor. Many settled in cities in Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. They worked at unskilled jobs in the cities or building canals and railroads. Irish women often worked as domestic servants for wealthy families, laboring 16 or more hours per day. In 1849 a Boston health committee reported that low wages forced most Irish immigrants to live in poor housing. Still, many immigrants enjoyed a new feeling of equality. Patrick Dunny wrote home to his family about this situation. “People that cut a great dash [style] at home . . . think it strange [in the United States] for the humble class of people to get as much respect as themselves.” —Patrick Dunny, quoted in Who Built America? by Bruce Levine et al. A Failed German Revolution Many Germans also came to the United States during this time. In the early 1800s, many Germans went to the United States to escape religious persecution. Then in 1848 some Germans staged a revolution against harsh rule. Some educated Germans fled to the United States to escape persecution caused by their political activities. Most German immigrants, however, were working class, and they came for economic reasons. The United States seemed to offer more excellent economic opportunities and freedom from government control. While most Irish immigrants were Catholics, German immigrant groups included Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. German immigrants were more likely then the Irish became farmers and live in rural areas. They moved to midwestern states where more land suited to agriculture was available. Unlike the Irish, a high percentage of German immigrants arrived in the United States with money. Despite their funds and skills, German immigrants often were forced to take low-paying jobs. Many German immigrants worked as tailors, seamstresses, bricklayers, servants, clerks, cabinetmakers, bakers, and food merchants. Anti-Immigration Movements Industrialization and the waves of people from Europe greatly changed the American labor force. While many immigrants went to the Midwest to get farmland, other immigrants filled the need for cheap labor in towns and cities. Industrial jobs in the Northeast attracted many people. Yet a great deal of native-born Americans feared losing their jobs to immigrants who might work for lower wages. Some felt implicitly threatened by the new immigrants’ cultures and religions. For example, before Catholic immigrants arrived, most Americans were Protestants. Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Europe caused American Protestants to mistrust Catholic immigrants. Those Americans and others who opposed immigration were called nativists. In the 1840s and 1850s, some nativists became politically active. An 1844 election flyer gave Americans this warning. “Look at the . . . thieves and vagabonds [tramps] roaming our streets . . . monopolizing [taking] the business which properly belongs to our own native and true-born citizens. ” —Election flyer, quoted in Who Built America? by Bruce Levine et al. In 1849 nativists founded a political organization, the Know-Nothing Party, that supported measures making it difficult for foreigners to become citizens or hold office. Its members wanted to keep Catholics and immigrants out of public office. They also wanted to require immigrants to live in the United States for 21 years before becoming citizens. Know-Nothing politicians had some success getting elected during the 1850s. Later, disagreements over the issue of slavery caused the party to fall apart. As the immigrants assimilated to life in the United States, nativist complaints became less common. Rapid Growth of Cities The Industrial Revolution led to the creation of many new jobs in American cities. These city jobs drew immigrants from many nations as well as migrants from rural parts of the United States. The Transportation Revolution helped connect cities and made it easier for people to move to them. As a result of these two trends, American cities grew rapidly during the mid-1800s. Cities in the northeastern and Middle Atlantic states grew the most. By the mid-1800s, three-quarters of the country’s manufacturing jobs were in these areas. The rise of industry and the growth of cities changed American life. Those who owned their businesses or worked in skilled jobs benefited most from those changes. The families of these merchants, manufacturers, professionals, and master craftspeople made up a growing social class. This new middle class was a social and economic level between the wealthy and the poor. Those in the new middle class built large, dignified homes that demonstrated their place in society. In the growing cities, people found entertainment and enriched cultural life. Many enjoyed visiting places such as libraries and clubs or attending concerts or lectures. In the mid-1800s people also attended urban theaters. My favorite pastimes included bowling, boxing, and playing cards. The rules of baseball were formalized in 1845, and the game became increasingly popular. Cities during this time were compact and crowded. Many people lived close enough to their jobs that they could walk to work. Wagons carried goods down streets paved with stones, making a noisy, busy scene. One observer noted that the professionals in New York City always had a “hurried walk.” Many city residents, particularly immigrants, lived in crowded, unNew York City, safe conditions. Many immigrants and other poor city dwellers worked long hours in factories at dangerous jobs. Women—and frequently children—labored all day in small rooms making clothing to be sold to the wealthy. City streets were crowded with people buying, selling, and transporting goods. The first floor of the building served many purposes— living quarters, kitchen, and workspace. Here, garments were finished for sale. Urban Problems American cities in the mid-1800s faced many challenges due to rapid growth. Because public and the private transportation was limited, city residents had to live near their workplaces. In addition, there was a lack of safe housing. Many city dwellers, particularly immigrants, could afford to live only in tenements—poorly designed apartment buildings that housed large numbers of people. These structures were often dirty, overcrowded, and unsafe. Public services were also poor. The majority of cities did not have clean water, public health regulations, or healthful ways to get rid of the garbage and human and animal waste. Under these conditions, diseases spread easily, and epidemics were common. In 1832 and 1849, for example, New York City suffered cholera epidemics that killed thousands. City life held other dangers. As urban areas grew, they became centers of criminal activity. Most cities—including New York, Boston, and Philadelphia—had no permanent or organized force to fight crime. Instead, they relied on volunteer night watches, which offered little protection. Some of the violence was often between various ethnic or racial groups, who had different economic and social goals. Immigrants often came from a mix of social classes, which also led to conflict among groups. Differences in political goals and opinions also led to disagreements between groups. The fire was another constant and serious danger in crowded cities. There was little organized fire protection. Most cities were served by volunteer fire companies. Firefighters used hand pumps and buckets to put out fires. In addition, there were not enough sanitation workers and road maintenance crews. These shortages and flaws caused health and safety problems for many city residents.

In summary, Immigrants expected a better life in America, but not all Americans welcomed newcomers. The rapid growth of cities caused many problems. In the next section, you will read about how America developed its style of art and literature.