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carbohydrates
compounds composed of single or multiple sugars—it’s name is a combination of carbon and water
what is the chemical shorthand for carbohydrates?
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
what are complex carbohydrates?
they are long chains of sugar units arranged to form starch or fiber—they are also called polysaccharides
what are simple carbohydrates/sugars?
they are sugars, including both single sugar units and linked pairs of sugar units
the basic sugar unit is a molecule containing six carbon atoms with ____ and ____ atoms
hydrogen, oxygen
this is the process by which green plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the green pigment chlorophyll to capture the sun’s energy
photosynthesis
a single sugar unit
monosaccharide
pairs of single sugars linked together
disaccharides
another term for complex carbohydrates; compounds composed of long strands of glucose units linked together
polysaccharides
glycogen
a highly branched polysaccharide that is made and held in the liver and muscle tissues as a storage form of glucose. It is not a significant food source of carbohydrates and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods. These are nearly undetectable in meats
fibers
the indigestible parts of plant foods, largely nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by resident bacteria of the colon. Examples of this include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, mucilages, and a few non-polysaccharides such as lignin; they play a role in fermentation
these molecules attract or bind with other molecules, and are therefore useful in either preventing or promoting movement of substances from place to place — “these agents make things LATE”
chelating agents
this is the action of carbohydrate and fat in providing energy that allows protein to be used for purposes it alone can serve
protein-sparing action
what is ketosis?
an undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies, such as acetone, in the blood or urine
insulin
a hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to a high blood glucose concentration—it assists cells in drawing glucose AWAY from the blood.
glucagon
a hormone secreted by the pancreas that STIMULATES the liver to release glucose into the blood when blood glucose concentration dips
this is a ranking of foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose relative to a reference dose of glucose
glycemic index
hypoglycemia
an abnormally low blood glucose concentration; body releases glucagon
what are some symptoms of hypoglycemia?
anxiety, rapid heartbeat, and sweating
the type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces no or very little insulin; often diagnosed in childhood, although some cases arise in adulthood; immune cells attack cells in the pancreas
type 1 diabetes
the type of diabetes in which the pancreas makes plenty of insulin, but the body’s cells resist insulin action; often diagnosed in adulthood;
type 2 diabetes
_______ ______ sugars and syrups added to a food for any purpose, such as to add sweetness or bulk or to aid in browning (baked goods). Also called carbohydrate sweeteners, they include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, concentrated fruit juice, and other sweet carbohydrates.
added sugars
what are the three types of monosaccharides?
fructose, glucose, and galactose
what are the three types of disaccharides?
sucrose, maltose,and lactose
what disaccharide doesn’t occur in foods singly, but only as part of lactose?
galactose
name the monosaccharide combinations for sucrose, maltose, and lactose
sucrose (fructose - glucose)
maltose (glucose - glucose)
lactose (glucose - galactose)
what are some examples of polysaccharides?
starch, glycogen, fiber
glucose/carbs are a critical energy source, and is the prefered fuel for the ____, ____, and _____
brain, nervous system, and red blood cells
what are some carbohydrate choices for weight loss?
increase fiber-rich, whole-food carbohydrate sources, and reduce foods high in refined grains and added sugars
how many grams per day does the Recommended Dietary Allowance advise for carbohydrates?
130g/day
how much of our calories is advised to be added sugars according to the Dietary Guidelines, and WHO?
10%
the AHA recommends women and children should have no more than ____cal/day and _____ cal/day for men in terms of added sugars
100, 150
according to the Dietary Guidelines, how much of our daily grain intake is advised to be whole grains?
50%
what are the DRI fiber intake recommendations for men and women?
DRI (men): 38 g/day through age 50; 30 g/day for 51 and older
DRI (women): 25 g/day through age 50; 21 g/day for 51 and older
DV: 28 g/day based on a 2000-calorie diet
soluble fibers
often viscous, fermentable, and gel-forming these reduce blood cholesterol by binding bile, slowing glucose absorption, slowing transit of food through the upper GI tract; delaying nutrient absorption, holding moisture, alleviating constipation, lowering the risk of heart disease, lowering the risk of diabetes, improve satiety, and lowers the risk of colon and rectal cancer
Barley, oats, oat, bran, rye, fruit (apples, citrus), pears, and legumes are all examples of ___ fibers
soluble
insoluble fibers
they are nonviscous and unfermentable; tough fibrous structures of fruit, veggies, and grains; indigestible food components that don’t dissolve in water; resist fermentation by colonic bacteria
they stimulate the colon lining, increase fecal weight, provide bulk and feelings of fullness, alleviate constipation, lower the risk of hemorrhoids and appendicitis, may reduce complications from diverticulosis, and lower the risk of colon and rectal cancer
Brown rice, fruit, legumes, seeds, vegetables, wheat bran, whole grains, and extracted fibers are all examples of ___ fibers
insoluble
what are some of the usefulness of carbohydrates in the body?
energy source, glucose storage, raw material, structure and function as protein molecules, digestive tract health, blood cholesterol, blood glucose, weight and fullness (satiety)
what are the usefulness of carbohydrates in foods?
flavor, browning, texture, gel formation, bulk and viscosity, moisture, preservative, fermentation
what are the types of grain foods?
whole, refined, enriched, fortified
the body’s use of glucose for energy in the body
splitting glucose for energy (pathways, point of no return), protein-sparing action, ketosis, excess glucose
T or F: [glucagon] facilitates glucose uptake by cells and glycogen storage, lowers blood glucose level
false; insulin
T or F: [insulin] triggers the breakdown of liver glycogen, differences in muscle and liver storage
false; [glucagon]
what are some examples of failures or issues in glucose regulation in the body?
diabetes, hypoglycemia
what are some treatments that can alleviate type 1 diabetes?
diet, insulin injection
what are some treatments that can alleviate type 2 diabetes?
diet, exercise, insulin injections or medications, keeping a healthy body weight
what are foods that are low in GI (glycemic index)?
bran cereals, corn tortillas, most fruits, green vegetables, beans
what are some foods that have a medium GI (glycemic index)?
bananas, corn, oat cereals, sweet potatoes, pineapples, popcorn
what are some foods that have a high GI (glycemic index)?
most cereals, potatoes, white bread, white rice, watermelon
_____ _____ response foods are desirable and can improve aspects of health. Blood glucose levels drop rapidly after high glycemic response foods because of an overcorrection
low glycemic
what is the carbohydrate serving size of fruit?
15 grams per serving, but wary in water, fiber, and sugar concentrations
what is the carbohydrate serving size of vegetables?
5 to 15 grams per serving, starchy ones are major contributors of starch in the diet
what is the carbohydrate serving size for grains?
15 grams per serving, whole grains that are low in added fat and sugar
what is the carbohydrate serving size of protein foods?
0 to 15 grams per serving for nuts and legumes
what is the carbohydrate serving size for milk and milk products?
6 to 12 grams per serving — generous contributor of carbohydrates
___% of the population exceeds the guideline for added sugar, often by double or more
90%
what is “sugar’s triple threat”?
metabolic disruptions (directly), accumulation of body fat (indirect), nutrient displacement
T or F: Diabetes is not caused by sugar, but may be an indirect cause when body fat increases
true
what are the top sources of added sugars?
soft drinks, fruit drinks, desserts, sweet snacks, coffee, tea, candy, jams, breakfast cereals, breakfast bars, energy bars, and protein bars
chlorophyll
the green pigment of plants that captures energy from sunlight for use in photosynthesis
glucose
a single sugar used in both plant and animal tissues for energy; sometimes known as blood sugar or dextrose: THE MOST IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDE in the human body
a monosaccharide; sometimes known as a fruit sugar
fructose
a monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose
galactose
disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; sometimes known as milk sugar
lactose
disaccharide composed of two glucose units
maltose
disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; sometimes known as table, beet, or cane sugar, and often, as simply sugar
sucrose
a plant polysaccharide composed of glucose; after cooking it’s highly digestible by human beings; this material in its raw form often resists digestion
starch
these are small grains; the starch form of these are packages of starch molecules; various plant species make these starch forms of varying shapes
granules
fermentation
the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms that releases small organic compounds along with carbon dioxide and energy
grains or foods made from them that contain all the parts and naturally occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed except the inedible husk
whole foods
viscous
having a sticky, gummy, or gel-like consistency that flows relatively slowly
hemorrhoids
swollen, hardened (varicose) veins in the rectum, usually caused by pressure resulting from constipation
appendicitis
inflammation and/or infection of the appendix; It may become infected if fragments of the intestinal contents become trapped within it
a sac about 4 inches long, protruding from the large intestine
appendix
sacs or pouches that balloon out of the intestinal wall, caused by the weakening of the muscle layers that encase the intestine; one or more of these is called diverticulitis
diverticula
refined
refers to the process by which the coarse parts of food products are removed.
the refining of wheat into white enriched flour removes…
3 of the 4 parts of the kernel; the chaff, the bran, and the germ — leaving the endosperm
endosperm
the bulk of the edible part of a grain, the starchy part; contains a little protein
enriched/fortified
refers to the addition of nutrients to a refined food product. As defined by U.S. law, these terms mean that specified levels of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and iron
germ
the nutrient-rich inner part of a grain.
bran
the protective fibrous coating around a grain; the chief fiber constituent of a grain.
husk
the outer, inedible part of a grain.
the fraction of starch in a food that is digested slowly, or not at all, by human enzymes
resistant starch
impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase.
lactose intolerance
lactase
the intestinal enzyme that splits the disaccharide lactose to monosaccharides during digestion.
ketone bodies (ketones)
water-soluble compounds that arise during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate is not available. Some of these compounds vary chemically.
a term used to describe how quickly glucose is absorbed from a meal, how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal
glycemic response
sugarlike compounds derived from fruit or manufactured from carbohydrates; they are absorbed more slowly than sugars, are metabolized differently, and do not elevate the risk of dental caries.
sugar alcohols (polyols)
dental caries
decay of the teeth; cavities.
T or F: [monosaccharides] can be converted by the liver to other needed molecules
true
T or F: the intake of refined carbohydrates isn’t limited according to the RDA
false
T or F: Both soluble and insoluble fibers ease elimination by enlarging and softening stools and maintaining digestive tract health
true
T or F: Fluid intake should increase along with fiber. The best fiber sources are [whole foods] from plants.
true
whole-grain flours…
retain all edible parts of grain kernels
The muscles and liver store glucose as _____; the liver can release ___ from its glycogen into the bloodstream.
glycogen, glucose
T or F: Eating brown rice may lower the risk of appendicitis and hemorrhoids
true
Hyperglycemia prompts the pancreas to release…
insulin
When liver and muscle are saturated, glucose is stored in the…
fat cells
Note
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