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Deindividuation
When an individual seems to lose himself or herself in conforming to group's identity.
Ex: Becoming part of a gang
Status
The outcome of an evaluation of attributes that produces differences in respect and prominence
What are dispositions?
personality traits, and abilities that guide behavior
What is fundamental attribution error?
The failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, together with the tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions.
Ex: we tend to believe that others do bad things because they are bad people.
What is the scientific method?
The process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation
What is pluralistic ignorance?
When people mistakenly believe that everyone else holds a different opinion than their own. Most people in a group may go along with a view they do not agree with, because they incorrectly think that most other people in the group agree with it
Ex: Not speaking up when a friend cheats on his math test because you incorrectly think that the rest of your friends believe cheating is okay, even though you personally believe that cheating is wrong
What is social facilitation ?
When being in the presence of others improves individual task performance
Ex: A musician/actor/performer who becomes energized by having an audience and does a better performance
What is schema?
Describes a mental concept
Ex: Your schema for your friend might include information about her appearance, her behaviors, her personality, and her preferences.
What is a stereotype?
A fixed, oversimplified, and often biased belief about a group of people
What is a variable?
Something that can differ between individuals or groups
What is the Measured variable?
In correlational studies, variables are measured,not manipulated
What is Population?
The (usually very large) group you want to learn something about
What is Sample?
The (usually much smaller) group you actuallystudy; you generalize from the sample to the population
What is Random assignment?
Randomly determining which participants are exposed to which conditions (versions) of the study
What is Extraneous variables?
Any variable not being investigated that has the potential to affect the outcome of a research study. In other words, it is any factor not considered an independent variable that can affect the dependent variables or controlled conditions.
The reverse-causation problem
A phenomenon that describes the association of two variables differently than you would expect. Instead of X causing Y, as is the case for traditional causation, Y causes X.
Ex: researchers may assume that those with a high body mass index (BMI) are more likely to be depressed when, in actuality, they find that depression leads to a high BMI
What is Experimental Research?
In social psychology, research that randomly assigns people to different conditions or situations.
Ex: Randomly selecting all of the schools participating in the hand-washing poster campaign
What is Observational Research?
A research technique where you observe participants and phenomena in their most natural settings
Ex: Jane Goodall famously observed chimpanzees in the wild and reported on their group behaviors.
What is Between-subjects?
Divide the sample into separate groups, each group gets one experimental condition or "Compare"
Ex: If you wanted to determine if one type of cologne attracted more people than another type of cologne,
What is Within-subjects?
Each participant gets all experimental conditions and serves as their own control/comparison or "Same"
What is External validity?
The study applied in the real world (outside of the lab)
What are the three essential methodological features of clinical studies that help maximize the validity of the research results?
(Blinded) Withholding of information regarding treatment allocation from one or more participants in a clinical research study
(a single-blind design) Participants are usually not told about the hypothesis being tested, or about any other experimental conditions, until after the study is complete
(a double-blind design) Ideally, the person actually running the study also does not know what condition the participant is in, or the hypothesis being tested
What is a Quantitative research?
The process of collecting and analyzing numerical data.
What makes a science, science?
(Often) Experimental
Objective
Quantitative
Replicable
Cumulative
What is Replication research?
Replication is a term referring to the repetition of a research study
What is Cumulative research?
A study in which the researcher collects and aggregates information from numerous data sources in order to make a generalization about the phenomena.
How Do We Resist Normative Influence?
With an "Ally"
Ex: Ashe experiment
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Asking someone to do something trivial before asking a bigger favor
Ex: Cult
What is compliance?
Responding favorably to an explicit request by another person
What is Informational social influence?
The influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective
Ex: Choosing a restaurant based on online ratings or recommendations
What is descriptive norm?
The behavior exhibited by most people in a given context
Ex: At the end of a theater play everyone stands up and start clapping, and immediately, others stand up and clap too. Some people may have liked the play a lot, while others may just be doing it as it is what it’s done at the
What is Engaged Followership?
Participants obey toxic instructions to the extent that they see these as necessary in order to advance a worthy cause with which they identify.
Ex: Storming the capital
What is groupthink?
When a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives. Groupthink is based on a common desire not to upset the balance of a group of people
Ex: The Challenger disaster. In 1986, miscalculations regarding the launch of the Challenger shuttle claimed the lives of 7 people. Space shuttle engineers knew about the shuttle’s faulty parts but they did not block the launch because of public pressure.
What is self-censorship?
Withholding information or opinions in group discussions
What is Group polarization?
The tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members
Ex: Racial hate groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, bring out the prejudice of individuals and make them much more violent.
What is Authority?
Power that derives from institutionalized role or arrangements
What is dominance?
Behavior enacted with the goal of acquiring or demonstrating power
What is the approach/inhibition theory
The approach-inhibition theory of power proposed that elevated power (which relates to increased rewards and freedom) activates approach-related tendencies, whereas reduced power (which relates to increased threat, punishment, and social constraint) activates inhibition-related tendencies Keltner et al.
Ex: Ice Cream and the cockroaches
Persuasive arguments theory
Exposure to additional arguments in favor of one's preexisting opinion strengthens that opinion.
Social comparison theory
Compare self to others, with the drive to be “better” than others; If others have similar opinions, we may take a more extreme position to differentiate ourselves.
Ex: I feel happy knowing that I beat my neighbor in the half-marathon.
What is The "ABCs" of Attitudes
Affect (Emotions), Behavior, Cognitions (Thought process)
What is the The Mere Exposure Effect
Which people tend to develop liking or disliking for things merely because they are familiar with them.
Ex: Buying a particular brand just because of the familiarity of commercials or ads
What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The theory is that inconsistency between a person’s thoughts, sentiments, and actions creates an aversive emotional feeling that leads to efforts to restore consistency
Ex: Smoking: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health. The magnitude of the dissonance will be higher in people who highly value their health.
What is the Self-Perception Theory
We infer our own attitudes from our behaviors, just like we infer other people’s attitudes from their behaviors
Ex: A person deciding that jazz is their favorite type of music simply because they observed that they listen to it more than other types of music
What is the The "choice blindness" effect
Failure to recall a choice immediately after we have made that choice
Ex: If you go to an ice cream store, order a chocolate cone, and then accept a strawberry cone without noticing
What is The Elaboration Likelihood Model
A model of persuasion. There are two different routes to persuasion using the central route and the peripheral route
What is the central route and the peripheral route?
(P, System 1): source expertise, attractiveness, the use of information unrelated to the message to increase acceptance of the message
Ex: Celebrities endorse a car type in a sales ad.
(C, System 2): quality/strength of the argument, uses data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness
Ex: A car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car's safety features and fuel economy.
What is the Sleeper effect?
An effect that occurs when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shift
Ex: A politician utilizing negative advertising against an opponent that may not be true but you then think of it being true later down the road.
What is involved in Message Characteristics?
Argument Strength, Vividness, Fear
Ex: humorous, emotional, frightening (fear), rational (informative), and environmentally conscious.
What is the The Identifiable Victim Effect?
The likelihood that we feel greater empathy, and an urge to help, in situations where tragedies are about a specific, identifiable individual, compared to situations where the victims are a larger, vaguer group of people
Ex: Showing a picture of a child starving instead of showing a large group
What is involved in the Audience Characteristics?
Mood and Need for Cognition, the need for cognition (that is, how deeply people like to think about issues), mood, and age.
Ex:
Age range.
Gender.
Race.
Health status.
Medical conditions.
Health risks.
Physical challenges.
Vision/Hearing.
What is the Need For Cognition?
Enjoyment of deep thinking, problem-solving, etc. (a personality trait)
Ex: Solving puzzles, extensive deliberation, and thinking abstractly
Source Characteristics: Expertise
Mostly matters when a message isn't relevant to us and/or we're not motivated to process it carefully
Source Characteristics: Credibility
Mostly matters at first, but not later (beware the Sleeper Effect!!)
Source Characteristics: Similarity
Mostly matters for important arguments
Message Characteristics: Vividness
Mostly matters when we don't think carefully (Peripheral Route)
Message Characteristics: Fear
Most effective when paired with factual information
Audience Characteristics: Need for Cognition predicts what?
Predicts which route we rely on
Low Need for cognition leads to which route?
Peripheral route
What is Attribution theory?
A theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.
Ex: We may unconsciously apply this theory when we see someone shouting on public transport. You may blame their character, assuming they are an angry person.
What is The Covariation Principle?
Which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way
Ex: Let's say we have a friend who is failing a class. If she usually struggles in school with most subjects and has a hard time in classes that are easy for others, we will probably conclude that she is a poor student.
What is Consistency in relation to The Covariation Principle
Whether an individual behaves the same way or differently in a given situation on different occasions
Ex: Ex: John laughs at the comedian at other comedy clubs (high consistency)
What is Actor-Observer Difference
We explain our actions as due to the situation, and others’ actions as due to their disposition
Ex: As you are walking down the street, you trip and fall. You immediately blame the slippery pavement, an external cause. However, if you saw a random stranger trip and fall, you would probably attribute this to an internal factor, such as clumsiness or inattentiveness.
What is Self-Serving Bias
We explain our successes as due to our disposition, and our failures as due to the situation
Ex: An athlete is more likely to attribute a good performance to their own ability, and a poor one to external causes like the event environment.
Dual-Process Theories with FAE
System 1 (Unconscious): Automatic characterization of person, Lazy and distracted, Causal Attribution
System 2 (conscious): Automatic characterization of a person, Insufficient effortful adjustment, Causal Attribution
What is Self-esteem?
The overall positive or negative evaluation people have of themselves
What is Trait Self-esteem?
Trait self-esteem is a person’s enduring level of self-regard across time–
Ex: A college football player has consistently displayed high self-esteem. This type of overarching self-esteem is called trait self-esteem
What is State self-esteem?
Refers to how we feel about or evaluate ourselves at a given point in time.
Ex: A person may have high self-esteem in one situation, such as excelling at work
What is Sociometer hypothesis?
Self-esteem is a psychological gauge of the degree to which people perceive that they are relationally valued and socially accepted by other people
Ex: Increased self-esteem when they are included and decreased self-esteem when they are excluded
What is Egocentrism?
We know more about ourselves than about the "average person", so we pay more attention to our own abilities than to other people's abilities when deciding if we're above average or not
Ex: Basically, instead of thinking "am I better than the average person at this?", we think "am I good at this?"
What is self-enhancement?
The desire to maintain, increase, or protect one’s positive self-views
Ex: Averages were given to participants and told to rate it, little did they know, it was their own answers, from six weeks earlier. They then rated themselves above their own numbers.
What is the The Dunning-Kruger Effect?
Bias in which people with limited competence in a particular domain overestimate their abilities
Ex: Incompetent People Are Often Too Incompetent To Realize Just How Incompetent They Are
What is Motivational Explanation?
Self Enhancement
What is Egocentrism and Dunning-Kruger Effect involved with ?
Cognitive Explanations
What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
Using a starting point to estimate how frequent or likely an event is, and then making adjustments up and down from this starting point.
The hot hand fallacy
After some string of events with the same outcomes has occurred, the outcome is more likely to occur (Controlled)
Ex: Basketball player making three-pointers
Availibility heuristic bias
Our tendency is to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions.
(Plane vs. Car)
The False Consensus Effect
We tend to think that our own beliefs and choices are more common than they really are
Ex: “Everyone is just like me!”
What is dimensions of social evaluation?
When we want good people in power but not bad people
What is Self Defeating Prophecies ?
When a persons initial impression of something turns out to be wrong
What is Dispositional?
Internal Factors
What is Situational?
External Factors
What is involved in cognitive explanations
Perception, attention, memory, thinking, and problem-solving
Actual self vs Ideal self vs Ought self
The self that people believe they are
vs
The self that embodies people's wishes and aspirations
vs
The self that is concerned with the duties, obligations and external demands people feel they are compelled to honor.
Self-discrepancy theory
A theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves.
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance
Ex: Barry Manilow shirt
self-presentation
Presenting the person we would like others to believe we are
Ex: Job interviews
Power
The ability to control one's own outcome and those of others; the freedom to act
What is Social Psychology?
The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations
Social psychologists study how social contexts affect our minds and behaviors using the ________________?
Scientific method
What is diffusion of responsibility?
When people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead. The more people involved, the more likely it is that each person will do nothing, believing someone else from the group will probably respond
Ex: Witnessing racist, sexist, or otherwise inappropriate behavior coming from one employee toward another and not reporting it because you believe it's not your place to speak up.
The mind processes information in two ways when you encounter a social situation, which are____________ and ____________?
Automatic processing: Any information processing that occurs involuntarily and without conscious intention or control
Ex: Seeing, reading, riding a bicycle, playing a game, or driving a car.
Controlled processing: It involves tasks that are difficult enough to require our full attention.
Ex: The first time a person drives a car, writing a letter to a friend, and answering interview questions
What is natural selection?
Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success
Ex: Evolving long necks have enabled giraffes to feed on leaves that others can't reach, giving them a competitive advantage.
What is a theory?
A set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of the world
What is the independent variable?
What we deliberate change("manipulate") in an experiment
What is the Dependent variable?
What we measure in an experiment, to see if it is affected by the independent variable
What is Random sampling?
Randomly deciding who participates in the study at all
The third variable problem
A type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others.
Ex: Cities with a greater number of churches have a higher crime rate.
What is Correlational Research?
Research that involves measuring two or more variables and assessing whether there is a relationship between them
What is Confounding variables?
Things that systematically differ between experimental conditions, and introduce alternative explanations for results