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Consciousness
A person’s awareness of mental processes and everything going on around them at any given moment
Internal stimuli
Pain, hunger, thirst, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions
External stimuli
Seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend
States of Consciousness
Wakefulness, sleep, and altered state of consciousness
Wakefulness
High level of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior; alert
Sleep
A state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness
Altered State of Consciousness
State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to wakefulness
Ex. Daydreaming, intoxication, anesthesia, medication
Biological Rhythm
An internal cycle of biological activity
Circadian rhythm
Biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours
The sleep wake cycle is one of our main circadian rhythms that is linked to our environment’s natural light-dark cycle
Hypothalamus
Homeostasis center
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: the brain’s clock mechanism
Pineal gland
Releases melatonin and maintains various biological rhythms
Melatonin
Hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycle
Stimulated by darkness (sleepy)
Inhibited by light (wakeful)
Sleep regulation
The brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness & coordinating this cycle with outside world
Can be disrupted by jet lag, sleep disorders (insomnia), rotating shift work
Sleep debt/insufficiency
Not enough sleep on a chronic basis
Sleep rebound
Tendency to fall asleep faster during subsequent opportunities for sleep (when in sleep debt or deprivation)
How much sleep do we need?
Average of 7-9 hours each night for adults
Why do we sleep?
Adaptive Theory (Evolutionary)
Sleep is essential to restore resources expended during the day
Avoid predators in darkness
WHEN we sleep
Restorative Theory (Cognitive)
Physical health restoration
replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage
Mental health functioning
attention, decision-making, memory, emotions
WHY we sleep
Stages of Sleep
Rapid-Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
Eyes move rapidly under the eyelids
Brainwaves appear similar to those during wakefulness
Dreaming
Non-REM (NREM) Sleep
All other stages of sleep, distinguished by brainwave activity
4-6 cycles per night (90-110 minutes each)
NREM Stage 1
Transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep, respiration and heartbeat slow down, and overall muscle tension and core body temp decrease
Mostly alpha waves
Easy to wake someone up
NREM Stage 2
Body goes into deep relaxation
Theta waves
Characterized by the appearance of:
Sleep spindles — rapid burst of high-frequency brainwaves
Learning and memory
K-complexes — very high amplitude pattern of brain activity
NREM Stage 3
Respiration and heart rate slow down further, important for learning and memory, known as slow-wave sleep
“Deep sleep“
Delta waves
Difficult to wake someone up
REM Sleep
Important for emotion regulation, creating new synapses in the brain (critical for learning and memory)
Infants spend HALF of their sleep time in REM stage
Why do we dream?
Wish Fulfillment Theory, Information Processing Theory, Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
Wish Fulfillment Theory
Freud
Dreams preserve our sanity by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes
Dream content may be so threatening or disgusting that it was disguised in dreams
Manifest Content — Dream content
Latent Content — Dream’s true meaning
Information Processing Theory
Rosalind Cartwright
Dreams reflect daily life events that are important to us
Help us sift through everyday experiences and thoughts
Help us regulate emotions
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
Alan Hobson
Dreams are a result of our brains imposing narrative explanations to explain random brain activation
Synthesize = make sense of
Activation = neural activity during REM
Cerebral cortex tries to make sense of this random brain stimulation (in pons; brainstem)
Insomnia
Difficulty falling or staying asleep
Sleep apnea
Multiple bursts of not breathing
Narcolepsy
Sudden slip into REM sleep
Night terrors
Extreme fear, panic, screaming (Rare; most common in children)
REM Behavior Disorder
Mechanism that blocks the movements of the voluntary muscles fails
Acting out dreams (Ex. kicking, punching, yelling)
Sleep walking (Somnambulism)
Complex behaviors with eyes open but still asleep
NREM Stage 3 (slow-wave)
Effects of Sleep Debt
Substance Abuse
A compulsive pattern of drug used despite negative consequences
Involves physical and psychological dependence
Physical dependence = need to take a drug to avoid changes in normal bodily functions and withdrawal symptoms
Psychological dependence = emotional need for a drug; thoughts about getting/using a drug
Tolerance
When a person requires more and more of a drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses
Influences physical dependence
Withdrawal
Adverse symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued
Stimulants
Drugs that increase levels of neural activity
Dopamine agonists (prevent reuptake of dopamine)
Associated with reward and pleasure (highly addictive)
Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine (meth, ADHD meds), MDMA (ecstasy, Molly), and cathinone (bath salts)
Depressants
Drugs that suppress the central nervous system activity
Acts as agonists of GABA neurotransmitters, which have a “quieting effect“ on the brain
Alcohol, barbiturates (anticonvulsant meds), benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety meds)
Alcohol: decreases reaction time and visual activity, lower levels of alertness, reduces behavioral control, can result in complete loss of consciousness, disrupt sleep
Opioids
Serve as analgesics (decrease pain) through their effects on the endogenou opioid neurotransmitter system; highly addictive
Heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine
Hallucinogens
Causes changes in sensory and perceptual experiences, vivid hallucinations, vary regarding the specific neurotransmitter systems they affect:
Mecaline and LSD (serotonin agonists)
PCP and ketamine (NMDA glutamate recepetor antagonists)
Cannabis
Hypnosis
Extreme focus on the self that involves suggested changes of behavior and experiences
Bringing people into a “state of suggestibility“
Clinicians may use relaxation and suggestion in attempts to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a pt
Uses include pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, and quitting smoking
Theories of Hypnosis
Dissociation Theory
Divided consciousness
One stream of mental activity occurs outside of awareness and control
Ex. Not remembering act of driving
Social-Cognitive Theory
People are playing the role expected of them in the situation
Not an altered or dissociative state, but fulfilling social expectations
Meditation
Focusing on one “target” to increase awareness and mindfulness of the present moment
Achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus
Beneficial for stress management, sleep, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, pain management
Martin is consistently sleeping 4 hours each night. This chronic sleep insufficiency is also known as ________.
Jet lag
Rotating Shift Work
Circadian Rhythm
Sleep Debt
Sleep Debt
Your ability to read this quiz question, see the students around you, feel how you’re currently feeling, and have awareness of your thoughts and emotions is because of your ________.
Circadian Rhythm
Personality
Consciousness
Altered State of Consciousness
Consciousness
The sleep-wake cycle is due to our ________ rhythm.
Circadian
Biological
Environmental
Ultradian
Circadian
Sleep walking is characterized by which of the following?
Complex behaviors while asleep, but with eyes open
Acting out dreams in a panic (e.g., kicking, yelling)
Difficulty falling or staying asleep
Suddenly slipping into REM sleep
Complex behaviors while asleep, but with eyes open
Thanks to our hormone _______, exposure to light makes us feel alert and darkness makes us feel tired, which helps to regulate our sleep-wake cycle.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Pineal
Melatonin
Cortisol
Melatonin
_______ theory explains WHEN we sleep; _______ theory explains WHY we sleep
Restorative/Cognitive;Adaptive/Evolutionary
Adaptive/Evolutionary;Restorative/Cognitive
Adaptive/Cognitive;Restorative/Evolutionary
Adaptive/Evolutionary;Restorative/Cognitive
Stephanie needs more and more of a drug in order to experience the same effects of the drug. This is an example of drug ________.
Withdrawal
Psychological Dependence
Tolerance
Reuptake
Tolerance
What do hypnotism and meditation have in common?
An individual focuses on one thing and can help reduce anxiety
They both require religiosity or spirituality
Everyone can be hypnotized and meditate to the same degree
Individuals do not remember being in a hypnotic or meditative state
An individual focuses on one thing and can help reduce anxiety
Which of the following is an example of an implicit memory?
Being classically conditioned to have a fear of snakes
Understanding language
Knowing each of the US State Capitals
Remembering your first day of PSYC 2000
Being classically conditioned to have a fear of snakes
The storage capacity of long-term memory is ________.
15-30 seconds
essentially limitless
up to 10 years
up to 20 years
essentially limitless
The ________ is important for implicit memories, whereas _______ is important for explicit memories.
Cerebellum; Amygdala
Amygdala; Hippocampus
Cerebellum; Hippocampus
Cerebellum; Hypothalamus
Cerebellum; Hippocampus
Which of the following strategies can enhance your memory?
Rehearsal
Self referencing
Adequate sleep
All of the above
All of the above
Learning your new college email address makes it harder for you to remember your old high school email address. This is an example of___________.
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Amnesia
Memory reconstruction
Retroactive interference
The self-referencing effect refers to ________.
Making the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you
Making a phrase of all the first letters of the words you are trying to memorize
Being easily able to remember autobiographical memories
Repeating words you are trying to memorize out loud to yourself
Making the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you
The formulation of new memories is sometimes called memory____________, and the process of bringing up old memories (and unintentionally altering them) is called memory_____________.
Construction; reconstruction
Reconstruction; construction
Production; reproduction
Reproduction; production
Construction; reconstruction
What is problematic about eyewitness testimonies?
Eyewitnesses are often motivated to lie about what they saw
Human memory is flawed, so it is impossible for eyewitnesses to remember any details of a crime
Eyewitnesses can be influenced by suggestibility (misinformation effect)
There are no problems with eyewitness testimonies
Eyewitnesses can be influenced by suggestibility (misinformation effect)
Watching Nike commercials makes you feel inspired. After watching Nike commercials every day, you eventually feel inspired every time you see the Nike logo (e.g., on an article of clothing, in a store, on a billboard). This is an example of ______.
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
Classical conditioning
Illegal Advertising
Classical conditioning
A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n) ________.
unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus
conditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
neutral stimulus
Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ________.
higher order conditioning
acquisition
stimulus discrimination
stimulus generalization
stimulus generalization
You give your cat a treat every time she stops clawing at the furniture. You are using ______ reinforcement.
fixed interval
continuous
fixed ratio
partial
continuous
Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is ________, which can be effective for teaching a complex chain of events.
shaping
extinction
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
shaping
In operant conditioning, “negative” means:
Bad, unpleasant, unwanted
To take something away
Something that decreases behavior
A behavior you want to discourage
To take something away
In operant conditioning, which of the following is TRUE about punishment?
It decreases behavior
It is the same as negative reinforcement
It describes when something is taken away
It should always be avoided
It decreases behavior
Which of the following is NOT an example of observational learning?
Studying hard for Exam 2 after Dr. Brossoit praises you for acing Exam 1
Thinking that your older sibling is cool, so trying to act more like them
After seeing other students take notes in class, you bring a notebook and pen to class
Playing a violent video game and then yelling at your friend
Studying hard for Exam 2 after Dr. Brossoit praises you for acing Exam 1
Which reinforcement schedule has high and steady response rates and is most resistant to extinction?
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
variable ratio
Memory
A set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time
Encoding (Getting info in)
Converting sensory information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system
Storage (Keeping info in)
Holding onto information over time
Retention
Retrieval (Getting info out)
Using information in storage
Getting information out of memory and into awareness
Automatic processing
Encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words
Usually done without conscious awareness
Effortful processing
Encoding of details that takes time and effort
Learning new skill
Semantic encoding
Encoding words and their meanings
Most effective encoding
Deeper level processing
Effective if there is meaning or personal relevance; self-reference effect
Visual encoding
Encoding images
Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog, and book (concrete words) are easier to recall than words such as level truth, and value (abstract words)
Acoustic encoding
Encoding of sounds
State-Dependent Learning
Easy to retrieve memories that were created in similar states of consciousness
State of consciousness
Mood/emotion
Context-Dependent Learning
Easier to retrieve memories that were created in similar contexts
External environment
Location
Atkinson-Shiffrin (AS) Model of Memory
Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory
Sensory memory → short-term/working memory → long-term memory
Sensory memory
Storage of brief sensory events, such as sight, sounds, and tastes
Stored for a couple of seconds
Short-term memory (STM/Working memory)
A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
Lasts about 15-30 seconds
Memory consolidation = Transfer of short-term to long-term memory
Rehearsal = The conscious repetition of information to be remembered
What is the magic number for short-term memory?
7 ± 2 or 4 ±1
Long-term memory
The continuous storage of information
No time limit / permanent
Explicit/declarative memory
Memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall
Semantic
Episodic
Semantic
Knowledge about words, concepts, and language; facts
Ex. Who was the first Black President of the US?
Episodic
Information about events we have personally experienced
The what, where, when of an event
Autobiographical memory
Ex. 5th birthday
Implicit/non-declarative memory
Memories that are not part of our consciousness
Procedural: stores info about how to do things; skills and actions
Priming: stimulus affects response to another stimulus
Emotional conditioning
Ex. Fear of spiders, songs that evoke an emotional response
Recall
Being able to access information without cues
Used for an essay, short, answer, fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
Identify info that you have previously learned after encountering it again
MC tests, remembering a face but not a name
Relearning
Learning info that you perviously learned
Relearning different languages
Amygdala
Involved in emotion-based memories (Ex. fear)
Encoding is deeper when an even is emotionally arousing
Arousal Theory
Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters and hormones that strengthen memory
Flashbulb memory = An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
Hippocampus
Associated with explicit/declarative memory
Recognition memory and spatial memory
Involved in memory consolidation
Cerebellum
Processing implicit/procedural memories (Ex. How to play the piano)
Prefrontal Cortex
Involved in remembering semantic tasks
Encoding: left frontal lobe activity
Retrieval: right frontal lobe activity
Amnesia
The loss of long term memory that occur as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
Types of Amnesia
Retrograde and Anterograde
Construction
Formulation of new memories
Reconstruction
Process of bringing up old memories
When we retrieve memories, we tend to unintentionally alter and modify them, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions