Revolutions (1750-1900)

-Political economist and philosopher; Founder of "invisible hand" -Wealth of Nations lays foundations of free-market economic theory -Advocates Laissez Faire ("to leave alone")

-Protection of rights of people, advocate for workers right to organize, equality for women, and universal suffrage. -Proponent of classical Liberalism -Utilitarianism: Govt. actions deemed useful if they promote greatest good for the greatest amount of people

-German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary -Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, help form basis for all communist theory, have influence on social sciences, explain historical development of contradictory economic force interacting. -predicted violent proletariat revolution and withering of the govt.

-English economist -Argued that population increase would outgrow increases in means of subsistence (1766-1834)

-Increase in agricultural production because of increase in labor and land productivity (mid 17th & late 19th cent.) -crop rotation: rotating of fields, avoid soil exhaustion -Robert Bakewell: Pioneer of selective animal breeding, bred for certain traits -Enclusures: joined small landholdings into smaller number of larger farms (18th cent, England) -Jethro Tull: English inventor, developed seed drill & advocated to use horses

-(1840s) one of worst famines -Plant fungus kills most potatoes, which Irish peasants relied on -leads to massive famine & mass immigration to US, Canada, & Australia.

-Series of industrial tech. improvements, transforms process of manufactured goods. -Eli Whitney: American Inventor, develops cotton gin, (leads to mass inc. of cotton production) and introduces it thru development of interchangeable parts in gun-making. -Richard Arkwright: Invented Water Frame, spins several threads at once -James Watt: Inventor, improved steam engine

-Period new methods of transportation -> increase in speed and convenience of travel -George Stephenson: English railway pioneer, 1825: built 1st passenger railway -Robert Fulton: designed 1st commercially successful steam boat & 1st steam warship.

-Dev. of chemical, electrical, oil, & steel industries -mass prod. of food & clothes, popularized cinema & radio -Inc. of employment & production -Bessemer Process: cheap & fast way to make better steal, dev.: 1850 -Thomas Edison: Invented electric light bulb, acoustic recording on wax cylinders, & motion pictures -Samuel Morse: patented telegraph, creator of Morse Code -Alexander Graham Bell: invented telephone (1876) -Gugliemo Marconi: sent radio waves across the Atlantic, 1901

-British legislation, extends vote to most male members of middle class.

-System of textile manufacturing, laborers worked in homes or workshops thru merchant intermediaries or workshop owners. -Production held over by marginalized guilds

-Introduced by Frenchman Charles Fourier (early 19th) -Utopian socialists hoped to create human alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities where citizens work together.

-A business owned by stockholders, who share profits but not responsible for its debts. -Unilever Corporation: British-Dutch transnational consumer goods comp., began harvesting palm oil in Brit. W. Africa

-Last king of France (1774-92) in Bourbon monarchs line before French Rev. of 1789 -Monarchy abolished on Sept. 21,1792

• Louis & Marie-Antoinette charged with counterrevolution and guillotined.

-Served in National Assembly, called for universal male suffrage & abolition of slavery & capital punishment -wanted to create new deistic civic religion -Caused radical phase of the Revolution ("Reign of Terror"- 1000s executed for "dishonesty")

-French general, political leader, and emperor (1804) -Rose thru army & govt. ranks -Napoleonic Code (1804): body of French civil codes, influenced by Napoleon's view of French Rev., served as model for other codes. Nap's most enduring achievement. -Continental system: policy preventing trade w/ Britain & Europe, goal: destroy Brit's economy -Peninsular War: France loses, Spain wins, weakens Nap -Loss of Battle of Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena

-P: Marx's term for the working class, mass of workers -B: Upper middle class, merchants, industrialists -Both struggled for power thru out Europe

-3 forces, struggled for supremacy -Conservative: Traditional attitudes & values, cautious about change & innovation -Liberal: Open to change & new behaviors or opinions, rule of law, rights of citizens, private property, & rep. democracy, derived from enlightenment. -Radical: Favors drastic political, economic, or social reforms.

-British feminist (18th cent) -1792, wrote "Vindication of the Rights of Women." where she argued for women's equality with men and in voting.

-Proponent of democracy -Demanded same rights for women as men wanted -1791, wrote "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen", challenged male authority and notion of male-female inequality, later guillotined.

• Philosophical movement started in Europe, emphasized reason & scientific method

• E. writers focused on Govt., ethics, science, rather than emotions, imagination, or religion.

• Many rejected traditional religions for Deism (natural laws w/ direct intervention of God)

-French philosopher -Freedom of speech=best weapon against bad govt. -Spoke out against the French govt. corruption and Catholic Church's intolerance.

-Wrote 'Spirit of the Laws' -no single set of political laws applicable to all, depends on relationship and variable -Advocate for separation of executive, legislative, & judicial powers.

-Wrote 'Two Treatises of Government' - "human nature, natural rights of life, liberty, 7 property" -said The Govt. was created to protect these rights, if the Govt. fails, the people are allowed to rebel.

-"Society threatens natural rights & freedoms" -Wrote about society's corruption caused by science & art revivals & "The Social Contract"

OPTIONAL: -Sponsored by wealthy and soon denounced them

-1. Enacted settlement, acceptable for both victors & France -2. Balance of power created til German's unification, 1871 -3. Underestimated Liberalism & Nationalism -4. Used legitimacy to restore Bourbons to throne -5. United Belgium w/ Netherlands -> Kingdom -6. loose confederation of 39 German states, dominated by Austria -Klemens von Metternich: most influential at the Congress, foreign Minister of Austria

-French middle & lower classes overthrow king & assert power for themselves -Inspos: America's Indep. & Enlightenment Ideas -Declaration of the Rights of Man & the Citizen (1789): Outlined what was considered to be natural rights & rights that citizens possessed by Natural Assembly (except women)

-Led by former slave Toussaint l'Ouverture ->overthrew French colonial rule on Haiti -Set up 1st black Govt. in W. Hemisphere & world's 2nd democratic republic -Inspos: Dec. of the Rights of Man, prompted selling of Louisiana Purchase.

-MX fights to overthrow Spanish, succeed, independence gained in 1821 -sparked by Father Hidalgo: Mexican priest, est. independence movement among natives & mestizos, capture & executed. -Austin Iturbide: Conservative Creole officer, secures independence, combined forces enter MX city, proclaimed emperor of MX.

-Epidemic of revolutions, prompted by Creole & mestizo unhappiness w/ Spanish rule, sparked by Peninsular War -Leaders: Simon Bolivar (led military forces) & Jose de San Martin (protector of Peru) -Leads to US purchasing Florida & the Monroe Doctrine (Europe can't interfere w/ W. Hemisphere affairs, seen as threat to US if they do)

-Upperstate NY, 1848 -Women of all ages & some men went to discuss women's rights & conditions -Wrote Declaration of Sentiments -Organizers: Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott

-1870, constitutional monarchy: Piedmont-Sardinia -Camilo Cavour: Italy's prime minister, pushed for Italian unification -Garibaldi: Italian patriot, conquest of Sicily & Naples -> Italian state -Mazzini: political nationalist, starts Young Italy group, promotes independence & est. of a national state, inspiration to nationalist movements in Italy + more

-Conflict between Russian & Ottoman, fought primarily in Crimean peninsula -Brit. & France ally & send troops to help Ottomans to prevent Russian expansion -Russian defeat -> reforms & modernization -Florence Nightingale: Founder of Modern Nursing during CW, began nursing edu.

-Chancellor of Prussia, 1862-1871, then C. of Germany -conservative nationalist -Led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) & France (1870, Franco-Persian War) -Created German Empire -Promoted Realpolitik, AKA "The Politics of reality", use of armies & power politics to achieve foreign policy goals. -called for Berlin Conference

-Partial ÷ of Turkish possessions in Euro. -Austria/Hungary: right to occupy & administer Bosnia & Herzegovina -Serbia & Romania: independent, part of Bulgaria won local autonomy -Ottos continue important Balkan holdings -Bismarck angers Russian nationalists -> Bismark defensive military alliance w/ Austria against Russia, 1879 -Germany claims new role on world stage

-many writers attracted in hopes to revive the ancient democracy. -Assisted by Britain, France, & Russia to drive troops out of Greece and gain independence in 1829 & 1830 -Establish Greek kingdom