IB Geography Paper 3 Exam Questions

Aid and lending are important global capital flows within global systems. The distinction between them is important – insofar as debt must be repaid (unless debt cancellation occurs). Aid comes in many different forms e.g. bilateral, multilateral, tied, emergency.

Important global patterns include historical and ongoing capital transfers from a global core of higher-income states to the global periphery. Additionally, large transfers have taken place between high-income countries (e.g. US lending to UK in 1945). More recently, China and other BRIC countries have supplied aid and loans to many other countries (so-called ’south–south’ transfers) e.g. China’s Belt and Road project.

Interconnected world may be analysed in terms of economic links, political interactions (including spread of neo-liberal ideas linked with ‘soft power’ of US/IMF).

Possible links between aid, lending and interconnectivity:

• International aid fosters linkages between donor and recipient countries/organizations (including donations made by governments, MGOs and NGOs).

• The IMF lends money to states; in return, it usually requires increased participation in free trade, contributing to a more interconnected world economy.

• EU members have access to shared funds/lending as part of a highly interconnected MGO.

• Aid may have conditions attached (e.g. for countries where human rights have not been upheld, such as access to education for girls) which may contribute to long-term changes in the way one country interacts with others.

• The UN, MGOs and NGOs have finance, welfare and development staff who work overseas, contributing to international migration and diaspora growth.

National governments and multi-governmental organizations include state actors (e.g. nationally or regionally powerful countries such as US, China, Australia, Japan, UK) and global/regional organizations such as the G7/8/20, OECD, OPEC, UN, EU, IMF, BRICs, WHO among many others.

Control of global interactions includes the laws, rules, enforcements, incentives and sanctions that are used to manage/restrict/encourage different global flows of people,money, information, commodities etc. Many factors make regulation a challenge. Global development and population growth are linked with movements of people, commodities and ideas that can be difficult to control, including organized criminal networks and refugee flows.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of how:

• Superpower states influence global interactions using hard and soft power

• EU members have controlled internal trade, migration, investment etc. OPEC countries use their collective power to help influence global energy prices

• Shrinking world technologies are difficult to control for a range of reasons

• TNCs, especially technology companies, have enormous power on account of their investments and the ideas and cultures that spread via different forms of trade, including music, language, food and clothing. These changes may be hard for governments to control and resist

• Civil society organizations and protest groups may challenge the actions of national governments, especially in relation to internet censorship

• Hacking and identity theft may be hard to monitor and deal with

• Profit repatriation and tax avoidance by TNCs and wealthy individuals

• However, states are now using a range of new technologies and approaches to counter various risks (cybersecurity, e-passports)

• Nationalism/populism, re-shoring, Brexit and other developments show state government are re-asserting sovereignty and control over global interactions in varying contexts.

Diaspora is a spread/scattered population of common ancestry or heritage. Widely used examples include the Brazilian, Chinese, Indian, Jewish, Nigerian and Scottish diasporas, amongst many others. A country’s diaspora consists of its own overseas citizens, and citizens of other countries who are descended from earlier generations of migrants.

The cultural identity of different areas (landscape elements) - and their societies( music, food, language) - may become modified by diaspora growth.

Places in ‘host’ and ‘source’ countries alike, and at varying scales, may become altered. Influence may be far greater on some neighbourhoods than it is on larger-scale cities as a whole through the creation of ethnic villages (but ghettoization could limit cultural influence on other parts of the same local place).

Possible influences of diaspora populations on cultural identity:

• By their presence, diaspora populations increase cultural diversity in particular places where they have become established.

• Diaspora populations may help to modify the culture of particular places as part of a “melting pot” effect; cultural traits including music, language, food and clothing may all be modified by the arrival of migrants and establishment of diaspora communities (US culture can be analysed as a hybrid culture made up of traits contributed by many different diasporas).

• The physical landscape can be modified by the construction of places of worship or specialist ethnic retailers and restaurants.

• The cultural identity of source countries is affected too: tourism in countries such as Ireland caters to the expectations of visitors from the diaspora, possibly resulting in the fossilization of source countries’ cultures.

Financial flows include trade, capital movements, aid and debt payments and remittances. These flows can be increased or decreased according to the political frameworks they must operate in at varying scales. Governments may be national but there are also local governments and multi-governmental organizations to consider. Actions include incentives but also penalties and sanctions.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• The political opening-up of emerging economies/new superpowers (India, China) with new markets for exploitation

• National investment rules and laws that allow TNCs to deploy (or not) financial strategies such as mergers and acquisitions and joint ventures

• Political actions to lower production costs for TNCs in export processing zones

• MGOs and the opportunity to operate within trading blocs with low tariff barriers [Guide 4.3]

• Political decisions by governments to opt out of globalization/global data flows (e.g. US technology companies cannot invest or sell their services easily in China)

• Political decisions by governments to provide aid and loans [

• Political decisions by governments affecting migration, which in turn fosters remittances

Transport and communications technology includes: shipping, railways and airplanes, spanning civilian, commercial and military spheres of activity; telephone and broadband services, and the growth of different social media platforms and services. The timeline of innovation stretches back over centuries or thousands of years.

The shrinking world effect is the perception that distant places feel closer together and more closely interconnected in ‘time-space’ than in the past when travel times were longer.

People’s perception is shaped in a range of ways, including their participation in tourism and travel (i.e. flows of people); receipt of goods and services from distant places (i.e. flows of trade); global social networking and use of global entertainment platforms e.g. Amazon, Netflix (i.e. flows of ideas). People’s perceptions depend additionally on: their local geographical and developmental context; their age and other identity criteria; their access to and use of online/digital technologies such as Zoom and Teams (or lack of access in some countries and contexts).

Likely themes for analysis include:

• Successive revolutions in sail and steam technology, and the falling time taken to circumnavigate the globe by sea.

• The telegraph, telephone and internet; accelerated use of teleworking and online learning during lockdowns.

• The importance of air travel in reducing time travel between continents, and increasing access to low-cost air travel over time.

• The key role of the motor car for individuals and societies with a growing middle-class of consumers.

• Other key breakthroughs such as: high-speed rail travel; space travel (photographs of planet Earth and their influence on culture and people’s perceptions).

People may benefit in varied ways– including positive and quantifiable changes in income/wealth, health and welfare, rights and freedoms, along with harder-to quantify/subjective benefits such as happiness and sense of belonging/identity/culture.

Global interactions and flows have multiple dimensions, spanning trade, lending, migration, information exchanges, governance etc. One view is that some local societies in wealthy countries have experienced economic losses due to de-industrialization, while the opposing view is that the global shift of polluting industries has benefited HICs. Views diverge (e.g. in UK, US) on whether cultural and political globalization is beneficial/ desirable.

Wealthy countries is a broad category which includes high-income countries (HICs) and might also include emerging economies (EEs) and OPEC countries - a wide range of interpretations are allowed. Differing experiences of people can be explored at local scales (urban and rural areas). Impacts on particular societies may not be uniform: improvements (or otherwise) may vary according to income, race and other identity criteria.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of the diverse challenges and opportunities associated with:

• global governance to tackle climate change which affects all countries

• the actions of TNCs, including inward investment, outsourcing, offshoring and glocalization, and their impact on the lives of societies in HICs and EEs

• new technologies and benefits (and challenges) they bring economic migration and remittance flows, and their links with the societies and economies of wealthy countries

• global and local cultural changes (linked with music and social media for example),loss of sovereignty, and varying perspectives on these changes

• technological and environmental risks associated with global interactions (theses hould be explicitly linked with impacts on HICs and/or EEs)

• tax avoidance by TNCs could increase personal wealth of some individuals (company owners and shareholders) but governments lose income

Economic risks can encompass loss of income/earnings, unemployment (or loss of job security), business closures and loss of tax revenues. Identity theft may lead to catastrophic losses for targeted individuals.

New technologies include digital/online services/activity (including those which help facilitate the global shift of industry and online retailing), industrial automation, drones, 3D printing and artificial intelligence (AI).

Places are geographical contexts which may be analysed with reference to criteria such as their development indicators, urban/rural characteristics, industrial/retailing dependence,etc. In any context, the economic risks may be universal or more selective in terms of which members of a society or community are affected.

Possible technologies and risks:

• Digital retailing growth, accelerated by Covid-19, has led to the closure of many stores in high streets and cities throughout the world, affecting incomes and tax revenues.

• Digital technology allows TNCs to develop complex supply chains, resulting in deindustrialization of urban districts e.g. ‘rust belt’ US cities.

• Drones and 3D printing are ‘disruptive’ technologies which bring benefits but may lead to the loss/closure of some traditional services/types of employment.

• Identity theft, hacking, counterfeiting and the losses this brings to individuals.

• Surveillance may make it harder for some people to conduct illegal forms of trade.

• AI could have negative economic impacts (job losses or replacing humans) but also

benefits (lowers costs, might help students gain qualifications and higher pay).

• Credit other ‘new’ technologies whose risks are only now becoming apparent.

Low-income countries are crudely classified as such according to average incomes (usually adjusted for purchasing power). Some have been re-classified as middle- income/emerging economies; however, incomes remain relatively low compared with most high-income OECD countries. Local conditions vary greatly within many LICs (e.g. rural and urban areas). Credit any reasonable framing of ‘low’ or ‘high’ income used by candidates (e.g. China might be framed as ‘lower’ or ‘higher’ depending on context and time period used). Some citizens and communities may have far greater involvement than others in, and potential influence over, global interactions e.g. growth of global culture; UN/WTO voting rights; role in environmental conferences and agreements. Power can be defined as an ability to create or resist change; governments use soft power (e.g. influence of media and diplomacy) and hard power (e.g. military and economic tools).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• influence via MGO membership e.g. African trade agreements

• adoption of communications technology in LICs and increased involvement and influence within global social media networks

• positive involvement in UN agreements and initiatives e.g. SDGs

• diffusion of cultural traits originating in LICs/EEs, such as music or food

• countries who are sources for valuable raw materials, providing them with leverage on the world stage (e.g. history of OPEC nations gaining influence)

• growth of global diaspora communities e.g. contemporary migration of Somalis, Afghans; implications of historical/colonial ties between ‘core’ and ‘periphery’ nations

• specific instances of sporting or musical or sporting celebrities; but concerns exist about’ brain drain effect’ (talented citizens may migrate elsewhere)

• role of some LIC-based organizations in global tensions/conflicts [Guide 6.1]

• influence of some LIC-based organizations over illegal global flows e.g. narcotics (Afghanistan, Colombia)

Reasons include: economic, social and political arguments favouring protectionism; politically-motivated sanctions: environnemental/social/ethical reasons for restriction of some trade flows. Contemporary examples could include the USA, China or Bolivia. Also, the war in Ukraine.

Trade restriction methods include tariffs, quotas, sanctions, etc. The most likely foci are protectionism and resource nationalism (in relation to e.g. rare earths).

National governments may introduce policies on a targeted/sectoral basis; or may have a wider agenda (e.g. N Korea).

Emphasis should be placed on the reasons why national governments seek to restrict trade with some or all nations. These may include:

• the perception that it is economically advantageous to do so (imports may threaten a country’s domestic industries and economic growth)

• evidence that other countries are not “playing by the rules” (e.g. Chinese government support/subsidies for industries runs afoul of WTO free trade rulings) – this may apply to particular sectors only, however

• political reasons/trade embargoes (e.g. USA with Cuba, Iran; sanctions)

• the perception that benefits of free trade do not outweigh harm done to deindustrialized regions and communities

• the political manifestos of elected leaders and parties (possibly in relation to populist or nationalist agendas, and re-shoring promises).

Physical factors, depending on the scale of analysis, include relief, terrain, climate, accessibility, ecosystems access to a coastline, proximity to other places/countries/people.

Cultural diversity describes the heterogeneity of a population, measured according to traits/criteria such as ethnicity, race, language, clothing, music, diet, etc. Allow for a wide interpretation of this concept.

Place is a concept applicable at scales varying from neighbourhood to national geographies, or varying contexts such as rural and urban areas. Good answers are likely to show understanding of this. Physical place characteristics (climate) may in turn influence culture and cultural landscape (clothing; housing character).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• what is meant by cultural diversity and cultural traits

• the role of migration and diasporas in giving rise to diversity

• the geography of physically isolated areas (island states, remote and hard-to-reach rural areas)

• political factors affecting cultural diversity and cultural isolation (e.g. migration rules)

• historical factors responsible for cultural diversity/homogeneity e.g. colonialism

• shrinking world/spread of global culture and the lessening of diversity in some places e.g. loss of languages.

Glocalization involves tailoring a product to the cultural preferences, purchasing power and legal requirements of a specific local market. It may also involve adapting a product’s design in line with what local supply chains can provide.

Glocalization is increasingly important: Many TNCs, especially branded commodity makers and media companies, have been presented with new opportunities to grow market share in emerging and developing economies. At the same time, there are often considerable obstacles to overcome in order to make a success of these markets. Together, these are two key reasons why glocalization matters – global economic growth has opened up new potential markets, but differences in cultural and political geography present challenges for global players seeking to exploit those markets.

Possible themes and reasons why glocalization is increasingly important include:

• the over-arching drive for profits and market success

• re-making of popular reality, comedy and drama TV shows to better reflect local audience demographics, language, religion and customs

• the role of religion in diet or other cultural preferences, requiring the adaptation of global products to accommodate local market sensitivity

• local/political issues, including laws governing product design and advertising

• economic issues, including the proportion of people on lower incomes, which may result in TNCs introducing cheaper/simpler/plainer products

• difficulties TNCs may have in sourcing products (eg grain for brewing beer), leading to changes in product taste/composition

• increasing numbers of people classified as “middle class” and their increased consumption of non-essential goods, products and services.

Global interactions/flows include trade, services (including global providers of healthcare and education – such as IBO), capital movements, aid and debt payments, remittances, exchanges of culture and ideas, international political agreements, etc. Some of these interactions/flows cannot happen online – eg trade in oil, gas, food and raw materials – but others can, using video-conferencing services. Views about which flows matter most can of course be debated, with the issues seen from diverse perspectives.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• the development and growth over time of the “shrinking world”: data flows linked with trading, finance and media and their increasing importance

• global networks linking together national communications infrastructure

• financial flows that increasingly happen online eg remittance flows and also the real-world migration flows / diasporas that generate remittances

• illegal global flows and interactions may be viewed as a matter for concern because of their criminal nature – and much happens online eg risks of hacking, identity theft

• civil society efforts to protect online freedom of speech around the world

• TNC supply chains supported by “just-in-time” online systems, although much trade remains physical (food, commodities)