psych - exam 3

intelligence

the capacity to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire knew knowledge

benefit of an IQ test

operational definitions, mean = 100, standard deviation = 15

francis galton beliefs

there is no escaping from the conclusion that nature prevails enormously over nature when the differences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly to be found among persons of the same rank in society and in the same country

eugenics

the study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population

negative eugenics

discouraging reproduction by people presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits

positive eugenics

encouraging reproduction by people presumed to have inheritable desirable traits

radical behaviorism

filled the void left by the decline of eugenics - intelligent regularities in the behavior of humans and many animals can be explained in purely physical terms specifically terms of conditioned physical responses

differential psychology

individual and group differences in psychological traits and behavior

monozygotic twins (identical)

a fertilized egg splits within a few days of conception to produce two genetically identical zygotes

• MZ twins share 100% of their genes

dizygotic twins (fraternal)

two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells during the same pregnancy

• DZ twins share, on average, 50% of their genes

twins and the environment

if rearing environment is the major source of individual differences, MZ twins and DZ twins will be equally similar

twins and IQ tests

MZ twins have more similar IQ scores compared to DZ twins

twins/adoption studies + environment

sharing a rearing environment does not make people very similar !

important twin studies

• eugenics

• genes

• iq

• heritable traits

MISTRA

two twins were separated and met again

• had many similar traits

• married twice

• taken vaccations to the same areas

• both liked john wayne movies

• both liked chinese food

• and more

conclusions from twins reared apart

MZ twins are very similar even when reared apart

• genetics is important

MZ twins reared apart are not perfectly similar

• environment is important

MZ twins reared together are not much more similar than MZ twins reared apart

• sharing a rearing environment does not contribute much to twins similarity

charles spearman

positive manifold - general intelligence g

• reasoning

• learning and memory

• ideational fluency

• visual and auditory perception

• perceptual and motor speed

• mathematics

• knowledge

• verbal ability

alfred binet

universal education in france

problems:

• how to place children in the appropriate grade?

• how to identify children who need extra help?

measuring mental age:

william stern’s intelligence quotient

• IQ = (metal age / chronological age) x 100

• intelligence vs g vs IQ

david wechsler

• worked on the army alpha project during WWI

• studied with charles spearman

• became chief psychologist at bellevue psychiatric hospital

• wechsler-bellevue intelligence scale

• verbal iq vs performance iq

• WAIS vs WISC vs WPPSI

• the WAIS IV is the most frequently given IQ test in the world

components of the WAIS

verbal comprehension scale

• similarities

• vocabulary

• information

• comprehension

perceptual reasoning scale

• block design

• matrix reasoning

• visual puzzles

• figure weights

• picture completion

working memory scale

• digit span

• arithmetic

• letter-number sequencing

processing speed scale

• symbol search

• coding

• cancellation

verbal comprehension scale

vocabulary

• word —> definition

similarities

• in what way are an apple and an orange alike?

• how are trapezoids and triangles alike?

• in what way are a lake and a mountain alike?

information

• when is washington’s birthday?

• who wrote hamlet?

• what is pepper?

perceptual reasoning scale

• block design

• matrix reasoning

• visual puzzles

intellectually gifted

individuals with an IQ greater than 130 (2.3% of the population)

intellectually disabled

individuals with an IQ less than 70 (2.3% of the population)

reliability

how consistent and stable the results of an assessment are

validity

how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure

WAIS IV

split half reliability of .97 and a 1 year test-retest reliability of .90

IQ scores - reliability?

reliable!

• IQ predicts the likelihood of obtaining a college degree

• IQ predicts occupational attainment

• IQ even predicts social outcomes

stability of IQ scores over time

the scores tend to stay the same as you get older

positive correlations

• extracurricular activities, health and longevity, sense of humor, income, leadership IQ, spouse’s IQ, moving a long distance for work or school, military rank, occupational success, response to psychotherapy, sports participation, talking speed, depth and breadth of interest

negative correlations

• visual acuity, accident proneness, alcoholism, racial prejudice, smoking, dietary preference for sugar and fat

environmental effects on IQ

neurotoxins

• antenatal (ex. alcohol)

• postnatal (ex. lead)

nutrition

• general nutrition

• breast feeding

education

• early education enrichment programs (ex. head start)

• schooling (1 to 2 IQ points per year)

rearing environment (enrichment)

• children adopted by low SES families show an increase of 7.7 IQ points

• children adopted by high SES families show a 19.5 point increase

birth order and family size

cultural specificity

the flynn effect

in industrialized countries, IQ has been rising about 3 points per decade

possible causes of the flynn effect

• improved nutrition

• smaller families

• more and better education

• increased complexity of the modern world (requires more abstract reasoning)

• increased test-taking sophistication f

emotion

a relatively brief episode of synchronized physiological, behavioral, and subjective responses

• evident when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals

three part model

1. autonomic responses:

   • sympathetic activation, hormonal (physiological component)

2. feelings:

   • introspection (subjective reaction)

3. somatic responses:

   • behavioral tendency to approach or avoid something, facial expressions (behavioral response)

functions of emotions

• regulate arousal

• direct perception and attention

• influence learning and memory

• motivate behavior

• communicate with others

  • smiling

  • crying

  • embarrassment

why do we have emotions

• help us survive and thrive and promote survival of our species

• allow us to adapt to different situations and keep us safe from danger

• seem to be instinctive and universal, rather than learned and culture-specific

why are facial expressions important

nonverbal communication is a big part of everyday life

• communicate immediate information about how we are doing

• Darwin (1872) hypothesized that facial expressions are part of our evolutionary heritage

• they do not seem to be simply product of learning or imitation

pauk ekman - are emotions universal

showed pictures of emotional expressions to individuals from a variety of cultural groups

• happiness, sadness, surprise

basic emotions

• happy

• sad

• afraid

• angry

• disgusted

• surprised

• contemptuous

display rules

cultural rules that govern the expression of emotion

• often obeyed without awareness

• dictate the facial expressions considered appropriate in particular contexts

discrete emotions approach

analyzing emotions that focuses on specific emotions such as anger, fear, and pride

• treats each emotion as categorically distinct from others

• examines both primary and secondary emotions

dimensional approach

analyzing emotions that focuses on dimensions such as pleasantness and activation

• how pleasant or unpleasant the emotion feels

• how activated (or aroused) the person feels when in the midst of the emotion

affect (dimensional)

valence

• positive or negative

arousal/intensity

• agitated or calm

action-orientation

• approach or avoid

happiness set point

the level of happiness that is characteristic of a given individual

genetically determined and reflected in stable, early-appearing personality traits, such as:

• high levels of extraversion

• low levels of neuroticism

accounts for approximately 50% of the variation in happiness across individuals

life circumstances

thought to account for only 10% of variations in happiness

adaptation

a phenomenon whereby an individual stops noticing a stimulus that remains constant over time, resulting in enhanced detection of stimulus changes

intentional activities

account for 40% of the variation in happiness across individuals

• activities that have been shown to increase happiness include:

• cultivating feelings of gratitude

• savoring positive experiences

• using our strengths

90%

stress in college students

what stresses us out

catastrophic events

• natural disasters

major life events

• divorce

daily hassles

• forgetting your phone, missing the bus

stress

a physiological response to some type of environmental event that is subjectively appraised as being taxing or even exceeding one’s ability to adapt

• thoughts (racing thoughts)

• emotions (irritable)

• somatic (headaches)

• behaviors (overeating)

type a personality

• competitive

• time urgent

• hostile and aggressive

type b personality

• relaxed

• patient

• easy going

traits associated with coronary heart disease

• increased blood pressure

• increased heart rate

• higher cholesterol

• risk of heart attack

stress on our physical health

mood issues

• anger, depression, irritability, lack of energy, concentration problems, sleeping issues, headaches

immune system

• reduced ability to fight and recover from illness

stomach

• cramps, reflux, and nausea

mental issues

• anxiety disorders and panic attacks

reproductive system

• loss of libida, lower sperm production for men, and increased period pain for women

bones

• aches, pains, in the join and muscles

• lower bone density

general adaptation model stage 1

alarm - sympathetic nervous system is activated due to threat or danger

• heart speeds up, blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles

general adaptation model stage 2

resistance - body attempts to cope with stress while you remain on alert

• adrenal glands pump hormones in your bloodstream

general adaptation model stage 3

exhaustion - body exhausts if the stressor remains intense and ongoing

• vulnerable to illness, collapse

yerkes-dodson law

relationship between stress and task performance

• proposes that you reach your peak level of performance with an intermediate level of stress or arousal

mindset of stress

positive reappraisal, present control, downward comparisons

• avoid

• alter

• accept

• adapt

commonality of trauma

90% of people experience traumatic events

trauma

a type of stimulus, an event deeply distressing or severe stressor

effective treatments for PTSD

prolonged exposure

• teaches how to gain control by facing negative feelings

cognitive processing therapy

• teaches how to reframe negative thoughts about the trauma

eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing

• helps you process and make sense of your trauma - it involves calling the trauma to mind while paying attention to a back-and-forth movement

posttraumatic growth

the perception of beneficial change or personal transformation in the struggle to overcome adversity - however many do not show changes in behavior

developmental psychology

the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life

cells to society

developmental psychology was originally concerned with infants and children

multiple levels of analysis

developmental psychology now has evolved and expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan

• an inherently interdisciplinary, largely quantitative scientific enterprise

three primary domains

1. social and emotional development

2. cognitive (including language and perceptual) development

3. biological and physical development (including puberty)

developmental perspective

1. interested in “kids”

   • downward extension; prevention and intervention

2. interest in questions historically studied by developmental scientists

   • nature/nurture, child as active agent in his or her own development, the degree to which development is continuous versus discontinuous

3. developmental meta-theoretical commitments

   • value of levels of analysis

4. interested in lives through time

   • in particular the significance of the timing and quality of key early experiences with parents, peers, at school, with technology, etc.

historical periods of research on human development

emergence

• 1880-1919

early period

• 1920-1946

middle (early modern) era

• 1947-1990s

transitional era

• 1990s-200s

emergence (1880-1919)

baby diaries

• darwin, 1887

wiliam james: arm-chair theorizing

• buzzing, blooming confusion

early scientific studies: often by questionnaire, but some observation

• small child’s activities and feelings

• control of emotions and will

• peer collaboration

• similarities between friends attitudes and values

performationism

• development is. continuous

  • stability is default

• nature (often), nativists (later interactionists)

• selection

• ultimate causes and ultimate mechanisms

• universal processes

  • main effects

• early is potent

• intervention is tough

  maybe: basic science first

epigenesis (neoformationism)

• development is discontinuous

  • change is default

• nurture (often), empiricists (later interactionists)

• socialization

• proximal causes, mechanisms

  • process

• context specificity

  • moderation

• everything matters

  • but not much

• intervention is possible

• maybe: the goal is application/translation

maturation

normative changes in social and emotional behavior

attachment

enduring emotional tie

• between caregiver and child

  • forms throughout the infant’s first year, and beyond

  • no specific emphasis on first few hours of life

  • no requirement of constant contact with caregiver

function of attachment

alleviates distress and promotes exploration

why do infants become so dependent on their caregivers

psychoanalytic theory

• baby becomes attached to mother because she satisfies basic needs (oral stage, hunger drive)

behaviorism or learning theory

• babies become attached to caregivers through process of reinforcement

• caregivers meet babies needs (hunger, relief from discomfort)

harlow’s monkey studies (1958)

testing whether feeding is basis of attachment - baby monkeys separated from mothers at birth’ reared in cage with 2 surrogates

• half fed by cloth “mom”

• half fed by wire “mom”

results

• all monkeys pent more time with cloth “mom”; ran to cloth mom when stressed; used her as a secure base

conclusions

• we are biologically prepared to form close, comforting relationships

attachment theory - changed developmental psychology

the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature

attachment theory (bowlby)

a coordinated set of behaviors that promotes proximity with a caregiver

• if not for attachment, human species would not survive

function of attachment is to ensure infants are cared for and protected

• crying when distressed keeps caregivers close

• separation anxiety keeps infant close once they can move away from caregiver

secure attachment

infant’s needs are sensitively and consistently met; their signals elicit a reaction; they are effectively soothed by caregiver

insecure attachment

infants needs are not consistently met, or not sensitively met; their signals may or may not elicit a reaction; they are not effectively soothed by caregiver

internal working model

quality/security of attachment leads to this - feelings/expectations about relationships

infancy

sociability

• smiling

• babbling

• imitating

• etc.

preschoolers (2-5)

• peer interaxn slowly emerging

• level of complexity interaxn with peers gradually increases

elementary school years

• peer groups begin to emerge

• proximity, shared interests are important

adolescence

• formal structure (cliques/crowds)

peer acceptance

children you are rejected by peers have poor psychosocial outcomes

• who is well liked?

• who is not well liked?

early friendships

someone whol likes to play the same games, activities, etc.

later friendships

someone you can trust, who has your back, who understands you and listens and self-discloses

emergence of romantic relationships

interest in romantic involvement increases during puberty

• individual differences in romantic firsts driven by temperament/personality, opportunity, cultural practices, etc.

secure attachment in infancy is associated with

• higher self esteem and confidence

• more cooperative, better problem-solvers

• better relationships with teachers

• better relationships with peers

• more satisfying romantic relationships

cognition

the mental processes by which knowledge is acquired, stored, and used

• not directly observable; must be inferred from observable behaviors

cognitive development

the study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, and remember

the legacy of jean piaget

proposed a grand theory of intellectual development that viewed children as actively constructing knowledge through interaction with their environments

• know for his observational and clinical interview methods to understand children’s thinking and reasoning about the world

  • children are inherently curious and seek stimulation

  • development results from the interaction between the biologically prepared child and his or her environment

  • both nature and nurture are important

sensorimotor (0-2 years)

the infant explores the world through direct sensory and motor contact

• object permanence and separation anxiety develop during this stage

preoperational (2-6 years)

child uses symbols (words and images) to represent objects but does not reason logically

• child as the ability to pretend

  • child is egocentric

concrete operational (7-12 years)

child can think logically about concrete objects

• can add and subtract

• understands conservation

formal operational (12 years - adult)

adolescent can reason abstractly an think in hypothetical terms