AP Psychology Unit 2

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

“morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

CT

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. They show brain anatomy

fMRI

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. They show brain function as well as structure

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus

the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

environment

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

identical twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

fraternal twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

molecular behavior genetics

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.