Midterm

part of the NS that reports info about the state of the organism and environment

part of the NS that organizes and generates movement

part of the NS that provides higher order brain functions, such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, and thinking

part of NS subdivided into brain and spinal cord

part of NS subdivided into sensory, somatic, and autonomic divisions

idea that all neurons form a continuously connected network

neurons communicate at synapses rather than through physical activity

NS cell which processes info, senses environmental changes, communicates changes via electrical signaling, and controls body responses

branchy target for synaptic input from axon terminals of other neurons whose complexity increases with the number of inputs

shaft responsible for signal transduction from cell body; reads out info

all or nothing changes in electrical potential made by Nodes of Ranvier, requiring Na to allow neuron to reach threshold and K to bring it back down

gap between myelin that propagates action potentials

action potentials jumping between Nodes of Ranvier, enhancing velocity

where molecules are secreted into synaptic cleft, immediately adjacent to dendrite of next cell

areas of dendrites w/ receptors for molecules to bind, immediately adjacent to axon terminal of previous cell

gap between pre- and post- synaptic terminals

NS cell which supports the signaling function of, insulates, nourishes, and supports neurons; includes astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, microglia, and stem cells

CNS glial cell maintaining appropriate chemical environment for neuronal signaling, including blood-brain barrier formation

CNS myelin generator

PNS myelin generator

scavenger cells that remove cellular debris from injury sites and cell turnover, secrete cytokines

precursor to glia

carries info to CNS

carries info away from CNS

CNS cell that participates in local aspects of circuit function, such as DRG

muscle that performs target movement (extensor in knee jerk reflex)

muscle that opposes target movement (flexor in knee jerk reflex)

neural circuit that spreads info

neural circuit that integrates info

technique to probe neural circuit function, subdivided into intracellular and extracellular recording

an electrode is placed outside a neuron to detect temporal patterns of AP activity

an electrode is placed inside a neuron to detect small. graded changes in electrical potential that can trigger APs and assesss communication among neurons w/in a circuit

recording transient changes in [Ca] ion associated w/ AP firing to infer neural activity changes, where neurons are labeled w/ a Ca sensitive dye and then imaged

method introducing opsins into the NS so a neuron can artificially fire from light to assess neural circuit activity

bacterial channels transducing light energy into chemical signal activating channel proteins

group of nuclei that control normal voluntary movement, w/ no direct spinal cord connections, made up of striatum (caudate & putamen), pallidum (globus pallidus & SNPR), SNPC, and subthalamic nucleus; uses center surround decision making

input nuclei of the basal ganglia made up of caudate and putamen, shrinks in Huntington’s

cortical inputs from multimodal association cortices and frontal lobe motor areas that control eye movement

cortical inputs from primary and secondary somatosensory cortices in parietal lobe, extrastriate visual, premotor, motor, and auditory association cortices

output nuclei of the basal ganglia

pallidum region responsible for MSN activity; internal relays to inhibit VA/VL thalamic nuclei, external degenerates in Huntington’s

pallidum region in midbrain that serves as inhibitory output, where axons from medium spiny neurons (MSNs) converge, sends axons to superior colliculus

basal ganglia region responsible for inhibitory output that degenerates in Parkinson’s causing dopamine output to decrease; releases dopamine to the striatum leading to direct pathway activation and indirect pathway inhibition; synapses on MSNs

in striatum, give rise to inhibitory GABAergic projections that terminate in output basal ganglia, receive few inputs from each cortical axon

circuit that releases upper MNs from tonic inhibition and facilitates movement; inhibits internal globus pallidus to release inhibition on VA/VL thalamus to activate cortex, mediate focised activation; damage = trouble tying shoes

circuit that increases tonic level of inhibition, inhibits movement by inhibiting VA/VL thalamus, and thus output to cortex, suppresses function units

theory that direct and indirect pathways are organized in center surround manner

neurodegenerative genetic trinucleotide repeat disease where external globus pallidus neurons degenerate, causing hyperkinetic movement

damage to the subthalamic nucleus causing violent movements

region of basal ganglia; damage causes violent involuntary movements; receives input from cerebral cortex; provides inhibitory output to VA/VL complex of the thalamus; release glutamate to internal globus pallidus

major degeneration of NS w/ tremor at rest, rigidity, and bradykinesia; can be treated by Levodopa and deep brain stimulation

difficulty moving

Parkinson’s treatment where electrodes trigger blood flow and neurotransmitter release; parameters determined by trial and error

primary pharmacological treatment to get brain to produce dopamine for Parkinson’s

early scientist (400 BCE) that believed that the eye sent out rays, which seized objects (extramission)

300 BCE scientist who thought eye has internal fire from which the rays emanate (extramission)

200 CE scientist who thought optical pneuma was emitted from the eye, considered lens to be origin of vision, since cataracts obstruct vision (extramission)

our eyes shooting out energy causes us to see; 50% of Americans believe it & Plato, Theophrastus, and Galen

our eyes absorbing energy causes us to see, supported by al-Razi, Ibn al-Haytham, and Ibn Sina

900 CE scientist that noticed light levels controlled pupils, supported intromission theory

clear tissue at front of eye, provides 2/3 of eye’s optical power due to refraction

opening in the iris which expands (for more light in dim situations) and contracts to control the amount of light entering

tissue that focuses incoming light on retina whose refractive power is affected by ciliary muscles; issues cause most vision issues (eg. myopia, hyperopia); thin for distant objects, thick for near

eye muscles that adjust the thickness of the lens

light sensing neural tissue at the back of the eye, which signals via graded potentials, regulated by cGMP gated channels

centre of retina responsible for HD vision, w/ high [cones] and visual acuity

bundle from retinal ganglion cell axons; pathway where retinal signals get sent to rest of the brain

blind spot in retina where it meets the optic nerve, no photoreceptors

images are focused in front of the retina, far images are blurry, affecting ~50% of people, treated w/ concave lenses

images are focused behind retina, close images are blurry, treated w/ convex lenses, includes presbyopia

age related hyperopia

condition arising from spherical aberrations of the eye, leading to different focal points for different parts of the visual field

molecule in photopigments which converts between cis and trans to active transducin and begin vision pathwat

g protein activated by conversion of 11-cis to 11-trans retinal, which activates PDE

compound activated by transducin, which hydrolyzes cGMP into GMP, which closes gGMP gated ion channels

true color blindness due to a lack of cones affecting 1/30k people

ionotropic cell active in the dark, which is activated by photoreceptors and activates ganglion cells; stratify in deeper layers of IPL and connect to ON ganglion cells

cell w/ metabotropic glutamate receptors on dendrites, depolarized by photoreceptors in light, hyperpolarized in dark, activates ganglion cells indirectly through A2 amacrine cells

location of bipolar cell soma

location of bipolar cell axons

retinal cell that connects on bipolar cells to retinal ganglion cells; can provide lateral inhibition to bipolar and ganglion cells

retinal cell activated by off bipolar cells which are excited by light in the center, inhibited by light in the surround

retinal cell inhibited by light in the center, excited by light in the surround

retinal cell that provides negative feedback to photoreceptors through lateral inhibition

physical measurement of light intensity

sensation elicited by light intensity

creating ganglia that prefer different colors, includes parasol (magnocellular), midget (parvocellular) and bistratified (koniocellular)

center surround retinal ganglion cells responsible for detecting luminance & motion w/ its large receptive field

red/green retinal ganglion cell, w/ small receptive field and high acuity due to small receptive field

blue/yellow retinal ganglion cell

where ~60% of retinal ganglion cell axons cross brain hemisphere

portion of visual field closest to nose that crosses at the optic chiasm

portion of visual field closest to ear whose retinal ganglion axons stay ipsilateral

photopigment crucial for circadian rhythms, why circadian rhythm is sensitive to blue light

brain region that coordinates head and eye movements to visual target; also axial musculature in the neck

both pupils respond to monocular visual stimulation; retinal ganglion cells → pretectum → EWN (midbrain) → oculomotor nerve → ciliary ganglion → constrictor muscles of the iris

ballistic eye movement occuring when focusing

following stimuli w/ eye

gaze stabilization reflex combining both saccadic and smooth pursuit eye movements

retinal ganglion → LGN (of thalamus) → V1