A-Level biology biotechnology

1. Extraction

2. Digestion

3. Separation

4. Hybridisation

5. Development

Polymerase chain reaction

• 95 degrees separation of strands

• 55 degrees annealing of primers

• 72 degrees synthesis of DNA

• DNA sample

• Free nucleotide bases

• Primers

• Taq polymerase

Strands of DNA are cut at specific parts of the nucleotide sequence using restriction endonuclease enzymes

Cut fragments of DNA are separated by electrophoresis, separating the bigger fragments to the smaller fragments

Nylon sheet is pressed onto the membrane to move the single stranded DNA fragments through capillary action to the nylon sheet

Fluorescent DNA probes are added in excess to the DNA fragments, the probes are complementary to certain fragments of DNA

A UV light is shined onto the nylon sheet and the DNA fragments will appear as a pattern of bars which are unique to every person

• forensic evidence to identify DNA from a crime scene to suspects

• Paternal tests

• Identifying individuals who are most at risk from developing diseases

The development of software and computing tools needed to organise and analyse raw biological data

Uses bioinformatic data to build theoretical models of biological systems which can be used to predict what will happen in different circumstances

• genome-wide comparisons

• Analysing the human genome

• Analysing the genomes of pathogens for medical treatment

• Identifying species (DNA barcoding)

• Searing for evolutionary relationships

• Proteomics

• Synthetic biology

• isolating the desired gene

• Formation of recombinant DNA

• Transferring the vector

• Electrofusion

Using restriction endonuclease’s to cut the required gene from the DNA of an organism

Isolate gene is inserted into a vector; a plasmid by restriction endonuclease and DNA ligase which are responsible for removing a section of plasmid and reforming phosphodiester bonds between the isolated gene and vector

• culturing bacterial cells and plasmids in calcium rich solution and increasing temperature- causes cell to become more permeable

• Electroporation for bacteria and eukaryotic cells

• Electrofusion for animal cells

• produces insulin

• Produces clotting factors

• Produces antibiotics

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Somatic cell therapy and germ line therapy