psych 240 exam 2

______ _________ ______: a type of test where you have to identify patterns and solve problems. temporarily places information in working memory to be used later.

• performance on this task predicts performance on reading comprehension and logical reasoning.

• consistent with the idea that ______ ______ is important for higher cognitive task performance

raven’s score, working memory, and age

• raven’s score _____ with age

• raven’s score _____ with working memory span

• working memory span _____ with age

• those with _____ working memory span have similar raven’s score regardless of age

solving addition problems with just your mind and working memory is called _____ ________

a _______ ________ is a form of deductive reasoning that consists of two premises and a conclusion.

1. the exam is either multiple-choice or short answer

2. the exam is not short answer

3. so exam is multiple choice

__________ is when different cognitive tests interact with each other which can affect performance

________ _______ _________: a task requiring you to generate a sequence of random numbers that requires cognitive effort

working memory / long-term memory distinction

• _______ shown in people with brain damage

Patient H.M.

• _______ and _______ amnesia

• removed __________

• _______ long term memory

• _______ working memory

Patient K.F.

• ______ lobe injury

• ______ long term memory

• ______ working memory

______ __________ are strong forms of evidence used to distinguish two systems in cognitive psychology/neuroscience

• evidence from lesion studies

________ double dissociation: when doing one task doesn’t affect another. they’re independent tasks and show how they’re handled by different parts of the brain.

• ex) someone is good at cooking but not riding a bike (skills are separate in brain)

______ _______ ______: the likelihood of remembering items in a list based on their position or order within that list

_______ effect: better recall of words at the beginning of the list (long-term memory)

_______ effect: better recall of words at the end of the list (working memory)

_____ ________ uses information stored in the buffers, supervising attention, planning, and monitoring.

• frontal lobe syndrome

  • distractibility, difficulty concentration

  • problems with organizing/planning

  • perservation - failure to stop inappropriate behavior

__________ _____ holds and manipulates auditory information over short time intervals

• only holds information for about two seconds

• non-auditory inputs (like visually presented words) can be converted into phonological format and stored here

evidence for phonological loop

________ similarity: confusion occurs for words that sound alike

• not for meaning but for words that look similar (cough, through)

• and for words that sound alike (cat, map, cap, mad)

evidence for phonological loop

1. articulatory ________: the method used to inhibit subvocal rehearsal (inner speech)

   • asking someone to count out loud impairs working memory

   • acoustic confusion goes away

evidence for phonological loop

1. _________ speech effort: working memory can be disrupted by simultaneously speaking irrelevant material

evidence for phonological loop

1. articulatory ________ effect: memory span for short words is better than longer words

   • you will remember “sum, wit, hat” better than “individual, opportunity, university.”

   • effect disappears with articulatory suppressionchunk

_________ ________: a part of the working memory that’s associated with temporarily storing and manipulating visual/spatial information

_________ refers to the process of organizing information into meaningful units to improve memory.

• bad: FB ICI AFD RJF K

• good: FDR CIA FBI JFK

time effects

• ______ _____: subjects can generally remember about as many words as they can say in 2 seconds

  • longer words = longer to pronounce, occupies more of the limited capacity of phonological loop

phonological ________ is how the phonological loop is responsible for processing/storying sounds and speech-based information

______ ___ _______: memory span is better for…

1. words that are pronounced quickly (bishop vs. harpoon)

2. for people who speak quickly

3. languages where words are pronounced quickly (Chinese better than English)

_________ _____ is the component of working memory devoted to visual imagery and spatial processing

• information can enter either from _______ perception or ____-_____ memory

• information can then be treated like a percept: scanned, rotated, enlarged, etc.

phonological loop neuroimaging evidence:

• studies showed that the ____ hemisphere and _____ area involved in phonological loop

_______ memory is unconscious change including procedural knowledge (skills) and priming. ex) remembering how to ride a bike or how to read

_______ memory is conscious recollection and includes declarative knowledge. consciously trying to recall certain info

previous exposure to stimuli facilitates processing upon (partial) exposure

______ is the loss of previous memories or ability to form new memories

_______ amnesia: amnesia due to psychological trauma (not physical). very rare

_______ amnesia: loss of memory due to physiological factors (brain trauma, disease, Korsakoff syndrome)

________: inability to learn new explicit information

______: inability to retrieve explicit information prior to trauma

_________ _______: memory for information worse closer to the time of injury

• ex) getting a concussion and not remembering events leading up to concussion

Patient H.M

• surgically removed ________ to relieve seizures

• led to severe ________ and temporally-graded retrograde amnesia

• severely impaired explicit memory

  • preserved implicit memory

_______ ________ study: tasked with reading mirrored words, some repeated, some new.

• non-repeated words: implicit

• repeated words: implicit + explicit

amnesics worse for repeated words but same for new words

other evidence for implicit vs. explicit

1. ______ ___ _______: amnesics show similar improvement in learning “cognitive” implicit skills to controls

2. _______: amnesics show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition (explicit)

__________ memory is stored general knowledge about the world.

• ex) a close friend’s name

• type of explicit memory

_________ memory is stored personally-experienced events or episodes.

• ex) remembering meeting a friend for the first time

• type of explicit memory

semantic and episodic memory are both types of ______ memory

explicit memory (semantic and episodic) is involved in the _______ region of the brain

parts of the brain involved in implicit memory:

1. skills and habits = ______

2. priming = _____

3. classical conditioning = ________ and _________

___________ is the process by which objects, events, and people are grouped based on shared characteristics and features that distinguish them from other groups

1. pigeons put on tables with four food wells, each one associated with a category (cat, flower, car, chair)

2. let pigeons peck category depending on the stimulus. ex) shown photo of specific flower and had to peck that flower to give food

3. after 30 days, pigeons ended up being 80% accurate BUT could’ve been due to classical conditioning or associations

__________ view: when items within a category must have defining properties of that category. it is clearly defined and mutually exclusive

classical view

• _____ __________ is when either an item is contained in a category or isn’t

problems with classical view

1. _______: features an item must have to be in that category

2. ______: features that make an item belong to a certain category if they have them

ex) bachelor: unmarried, adult male. but is a monk a bachelor? no

_______ view: properties/features are characteristic, not definite or defining. something belongs to a category if it is similar to members of that category. boundaries are fuzzy.

evidence for fuzzy categories (typicality)

1. ______: exemplars with more characteristic properties are rated as being more typical of a category

   • order from most → least typical: apple > banana > pineapple > fig > olive

2. ________ ___________: people are more faster to verify more typical exemplars than less typical exemplars

   • “a robin is a bird” (faster) vs. “a chicken is a bird” (slower)

3. _______: linguistic expressions that can indicate uncertainty or imprecision: “kind of” and “sort of”

   • a whale is a mammal vs. a cow is a mammal

________ theory: example of a category. multiple exemplars are stored in memory. categorize new things based on similarity to stored exemplars.

_________ theory: a best, ideal, or average example is stored in memory

_________ approach: concepts may lie in geometric space

• similarity is then measured by how close in a space a concept or item is to the category (or another item) in this space

• inconsistent

metric axioms

1. _________: dissimilarity of an item/concept with itself must be the smallest possible

   • violation: a highly familiar concept is rated more similar to itself than a less familiar one

   • apple - apple is more similar than pomegranate - pomegranate

metric axioms

1. _______: similarity between two items/concepts should be the same regardless of order

   • violation: an unfamiliar category is judged more similar to a familiar category and vice versa

   • pomegranate → apple (d4) vs. apple → pomegranate (d8)

metric axioms

1. _______ ________: if A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A and C should be similar.

   • similarity judgments do not always follow this. (A and C are not similar)

________ _______ Approach: feature-based similarity approaches do not require these metric axioms.

• Similarity (A,B) = a*f(A and B) - b*f(A but not B) - c*f(B but not A)

TLC MODEL (Collins and Quillian)

_________ structure: more general categories are higher and specific ones are lower. features of a category are stored at each node.

• mcclelland: semantic demetia: general info is kept but specific knowledge is lost as disease progresses

• in language, kids learn more general levels before specific

_______ effects: longer reaction times for statements that involve information that is further apart in the model

______ ______ effects: faster at responding to “a dog is an animal” than “a dog is a mammal.” TLC predicts the opposite should be true

_______ effects: faster at responding to items that are more representative of a category

• ex) “a robin is a bird” is responded to faster than “a chicken is a bird”

• TLC can’t explain this if items are at the same level of hierarchy

TLC MODEL

______ _______: only store the features at the highest level so it takes up less space in your mind

TLC MODEL

_______ _________: lower category nodes inherit the features of nodes above them

_____-_____ effects: tend to be basic descriptions rather than more specific or general categories

• ex) “a dog was chasing me” vs. “an animal was chasing me”

_______ TLC: non-hierarchial, connectionist model

• a node is activated when a person reads, hears, sees, or thinks about a concept

  • activation spreads to adjacent nodes

• links between nodes vary in strength

• can explain reverse distance and typicality effects, unlike original TLC

________ _______ ______: given two words, respond yes if both are words, no if one is not a word

________ _______: faster when the second word is semantically related to the first

• Revised TLC explains this → second-word benefits from spreading activation due to the first word

_________ information: remembering something as it was (word for word). we do not remember everything we hear.

____ information: remembering the main or general idea of something. we remember this better than verbatim information

galileo experiment (gist vs. verbatim memory)

read the long story and then participants are tested on _____ for various sentences.

___________ information: same idea but different grammatical structure. syntax information doesn’t matter because it means the same thing

• “Prof. Lee thanked the mole”

• “The mole thanked Prof. Lee”

galileo experiment

• identical: he sent a letter to Galileo, the great Italian scientists

• ________ difference: Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter

  • same words, different meaning

• ________ difference: a letter was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist (passive voice)

  • same meaning, different sentence structure

• word order difference: he sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter

laundry example

• ______ help with recall if they are given prior to ambiguous story

balloon story

• __________ help with recall as long as they are appropriate with the story

war of ghosts

• tested on recall after reading the story

• found that memory tended to be ________ to fit own knowledge

_______: collection of basic knowledge that serves as a guide

• helps us know what to expect

• meaningfully organizes information

• enables inference

• sometimes disruptive: previous knowledge/experience can lead to systematic distortions of new memory

_______ _______: tend to remember things consistent with the scene (desk, chair)

• memory is not as good if there are no expectations (bulletin board)

• false memories for things not present in the scene but typically in the schema (books)

_______ ______: people tend to agree on what is in the script

• recall things that are in a script in order

• faster reading

• false recall for script items not in a story

_________: decreasing accessibility of information over time

• long term: could be problem with storage or retrieval

• can also be observed in working memory

_______ __________: shallow processing and insufficient attention to events or items weakens memory formation

• change blindness, depth of processing effect

_________: temporary inaccessibility of episodic and/or semantic memory

• “tip of the tongue” state

  • increase with age but unclear if TOT due to interference

_________: attributing memories or ideas to the wrong source

_________: the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories (Loftus)

_____: distortions of past events by current beliefs, feelings, and knowledge

• consistency: have a bias to think our beliefs are more consistent than they are

_______ ________: correctly remembering item or fact from past experience, but misattributing the source

____________: misattributing a thought or idea to own imagination

• ex) a musician unintentionally copies a melody from another song without realizing it

Roediger and McDerott Experiments

showed false alarms greatly _________ for test words that were thematically related to a list of studied words

______ ______ is important for monitoring and damage to this leads to errors and false recognition

_________: memories we cannot forget even if we prefer to

• directed forgetting and PTSD

________ __________: when we hear new information, we often make additional inferences, and we remember them as if they are a part of what we experience

• spatial relations

  • tend to make inferences consistent with spatial organization

  • do not tend to make inconsistent inferences

________ __________: inferences that are not guaranteed to be true but are plausible

• hammer experiment, assertions in advertisements

_________ experiment

misinformation (or new information) doesn’t overwrite hammer (original memory). instead, the new and original information are competing during recall

advertising experiment, Harris (1977)

________: type of advertisement

• “taking tabcin pills as direction will get you through a whole winter w/o colds”

________: another type of advertisement

• “aren’t you tired of sniffles all winter? get through a whole winter w/o colds. take tabcin”

advertising experiment, Harris (1977)

_____: people ignore these

• “taking tabcin pills may help relieve colds”

__________: unclear

• “tabcin makes you healthier” (healthier than what?”)

encoding

• context affects what is encoded and later recalled

• washing clothes and story example

storage

• war of ghosts example

  • extend the delay period between testing

  • more distorted memory with more delay

  • memory tends to fit schema better and forgetting happens

retrieval

• helen keller

• eyewitness testimony can be distorted due to interim misinformation and questioning techniques

see event → _________ → memory test

• “hit” vs. “smashed” → very different answer based on what word was used

______ interference: old information interferes with the learning of new information

• ex) remember a friend’s new phone number after previously learned the old number

__________ interference: new information interferes with the retrieval of old information

• ex) having trouble recalling how to play guitar after learning how to play the piano